Unit-7: Primary Education in India and Assam

Indigenous Systems of Education

Gurukula System

The Gurukula system was an ancient educational tradition in India where pupils lived with their guru (teacher) as a family, receiving holistic education and training.

The Gurukula system emphasized a close relationship between the student (shishya) and the teacher (guru). Students resided in the guru's ashram or home, engaging in daily chores alongside their studies. Education was holistic, covering subjects like Vedas, Upanishads, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, warfare, and vocational skills. The system focused on character building, discipline, and spiritual development, fostering a deep respect for knowledge and wisdom.

• Key Features:
  • Residential education with the guru.
  • Holistic development (intellectual, spiritual, physical).
  • Emphasis on character, discipline, and moral values.
  • Learning through observation, participation, and direct instruction.
  • Financed through charitable donations and offerings (dakshina).

Pathsala System

Pathsala refers to traditional Hindu primary schools that provided basic literacy and numeracy skills to children in local communities.

Pathsala were local schools prevalent in villages and towns, catering to the elementary education needs of children. They were often run by a single teacher and focused on teaching the alphabet, basic arithmetic, reading, and writing in vernacular languages. These schools were flexible in their timings and curriculum, adapting to the local needs and agricultural cycles. Learning was typically through rote memorization and repetition.

• Key Features:
  • Community-based primary education.
  • Focus on basic literacy, numeracy, and religious texts.
  • Taught in vernacular languages.
  • Flexible schedule and individualized attention within a group setting.
  • Often housed in temples, community halls, or a teacher's home.

Tol System

The Tol system traditionally refers to centers of advanced Sanskrit learning, particularly prominent in Bengal and Assam, where students delved into grammar, literature, philosophy, and law.

While primarily known for higher Sanskrit studies, the Tol system also included foundational elements that served as preparatory education or basic literacy within its broader framework. These institutions were dedicated to preserving and transmitting classical Indian knowledge. Students lived with their teachers, much like the Gurukula, and received intensive instruction in Sanskrit language and its vast literature.

• Key Features:
  • Specialized in Sanskrit language and literature.
  • Focus on grammar, philosophy (Nyaya, Vedanta), logic, and sacred texts.
  • Residential learning, often under a renowned scholar.
  • Emphasis on oral tradition and rigorous debate.
  • Contributed to the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems.

Satra System (Assam)

Satra are Vaishnavite monasteries in Assam established by Srimanta Sankardeva and his disciples, which served as centers for religious, cultural, and educational activities.

The Satra system played a crucial role in the social and cultural life of Assam, extending its influence to education. Beyond religious instruction in Vaishnavism, Satras also imparted literacy, music (Borgeet), dance (Sattriya), drama (Bhaona), and various crafts. They acted as community hubs where knowledge was disseminated, and traditional arts were nurtured, contributing significantly to the vernacular education and cultural preservation in Assam.

• Key Features:
  • Religious (Vaishnavite) and cultural education.
  • Imparted literacy, performing arts (music, dance, drama), and crafts.
  • Community centers for knowledge dissemination.
  • Used vernacular Assamese language.
  • Aimed at moral and spiritual upliftment alongside practical skills.

Maktab & Madrassa System

Maktabs were traditional Islamic primary schools focusing on basic religious instruction and literacy, while Madrassas were higher learning institutions offering a broader curriculum including religious sciences, logic, and sometimes secular subjects.

Maktabs were typically attached to mosques or homes of teachers, providing elementary education to Muslim children. The curriculum primarily included reading and memorizing the Quran, basic Islamic teachings, and elementary arithmetic. Writing in Persian or Urdu scripts was also taught. Madrassas, on the other hand, offered more advanced studies, ranging from Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and theology (kalam) to Arabic and Persian literature, logic, philosophy, and sometimes medicine or astronomy. They served as significant centers of Islamic scholarship.

• Key Features (Maktab):
  • Primary religious education (Quranic recitation).
  • Basic literacy and numeracy.
  • Often attached to mosques.
  • Taught in local vernaculars or Persian/Urdu.
• Key Features (Madrassa):
  • Higher education in Islamic sciences and classical languages.
  • Broader curriculum (theology, law, logic, literature).
  • Often residential, attracting students from wider regions.
  • Contributed to the intellectual and cultural life of Muslim communities.

Monitorial System

The Monitorial system, also known as the Bell-Lancaster system, was an educational method developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries where more advanced students (monitors) were used to teach less advanced students under the supervision of a single master teacher.

This system was devised to educate a large number of children with very few adult teachers and limited resources, making primary education more accessible and cost-effective. It involved a structured hierarchy where the master teacher taught a select group of 'monitors,' who then disseminated that knowledge to smaller groups of junior pupils. The system allowed for efficient management of large classes and was widely adopted in British India due to its economic viability and perceived effectiveness in imparting basic literacy and numeracy to a mass population.

• Key Features:
  • Utilized senior students (monitors) to teach junior students.
  • Enabled one teacher to manage hundreds of students.
  • Cost-effective and efficient for mass education.
  • Emphasized drill, repetition, and rote learning.
  • Widely adopted in colonial contexts for primary education.

Missionary Contribution Towards Education in Assam

Early Missionary Endeavors in Assam

Christian missionaries, particularly the American Baptist Mission, played a pioneering role in the development of modern education in Assam during the 19th century. Their contributions were multifaceted and laid the foundation for a structured educational system beyond the indigenous models.

• Establishment of Schools: Missionaries set up numerous primary and secondary schools in various parts of Assam, often in remote areas. These schools introduced Western methods of education, including a standardized curriculum and classroom teaching.
• Development of Vernacular Language: A significant contribution was the promotion and standardization of the Assamese language. Missionaries established printing presses (e.g., the American Baptist Mission Press in Sibsagar), published dictionaries, grammar books, and textbooks in Assamese. This helped to codify the language and make it a medium of instruction.
• Literacy and Awareness: By establishing schools and publishing materials, missionaries significantly boosted literacy rates among the local population, including tribal communities. They also introduced new ideas and subjects, broadening the educational horizon.
• Education for Girls and Marginalized Communities: Missionaries were pioneers in advocating for and establishing schools for girls and children from marginalized sections of society, which was a revolutionary step in the context of the prevalent social norms.
• Teacher Training: They also engaged in training local teachers, creating a cadre of educators who could sustain the educational efforts.
• Introduction of Printing Technology: The establishment of printing presses not only facilitated the production of educational materials but also introduced modern printing technology to the region.

The missionary efforts, while driven by evangelical motives, inadvertently created the infrastructure and intellectual tools that significantly advanced the cause of modern education and linguistic development in Assam.

Key Policies and Contributions to Primary Education

Charter Act of 1813

The Charter Act of 1813 was the first legislative measure by the British Parliament to acknowledge the East India Company's responsibility towards the education of its Indian subjects, allocating a sum for this purpose.

Prior to 1813, the East India Company had shown little direct interest in the education of Indians, primarily focusing on trade and administration. The Charter Act of 1813 is significant because it mandated the Company to "set apart a sum not less than one lakh of rupees" annually for the revival and improvement of literature, the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India. Despite this allocation, actual spending and a clear policy direction took several years to materialize due to debates between orientalists and anglicists.

• Important Note: While significant, the actual impact on primary education was limited initially due to lack of a clear policy on how to utilize the funds and the focus shifting towards higher education debates.

Wood's Dispatch of 1854

Often referred to as the 'Magna Carta of Indian Education', Wood's Despatch of 1854 was a comprehensive scheme for the organization of education in India, proposing a hierarchical structure from primary schools to universities.

Sent by Sir Charles Wood, President of the Board of Control, to Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, this despatch outlined a clear policy for the spread of education. It recommended:

• Establishment of a Department of Public Instruction: To supervise and control education in all provinces.
• Hierarchy of Educational Institutions: Advocated for the establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, followed by affiliated colleges, high schools, middle schools, and primary schools.
• Emphasis on Vernacular Education: Strongly recommended that primary schools should impart education in vernacular languages, while English should be the medium for higher studies.
• Grants-in-Aid System: Proposed a system of grants-in-aid to encourage private Indian efforts in education.
• Teacher Training: Stressed the need for training teachers for all levels of education.
• Female Education: Encouraged the education of women.
• Vocational Education: Advocated for the promotion of vocational education.

Wood's Despatch significantly influenced the subsequent development of education in India, particularly by establishing a clear structure and promoting primary education through vernacular languages, alongside the push for higher education.

Hunter Commission of 1882 (Indian Education Commission)

The Hunter Commission, officially known as the Indian Education Commission, was appointed by Lord Ripon to review the progress of education in India since Wood's Despatch of 1854, with a particular focus on primary and secondary education.

The Commission, headed by Sir William Hunter, submitted its report in 1882. Its key recommendations regarding primary education included:

• Emphasis on Primary Education: Stressed the need for special attention to primary education as it was considered the education of the masses.
• Local Control: Recommended that primary education should be managed by local self-governing bodies (District Boards and Municipal Boards).
• Vernacular Medium: Reaffirmed that primary education should be imparted through the medium of vernacular languages.
• Diversified Curriculum: Suggested that the curriculum in primary schools should be practical and relevant to the lives of the people, including subjects like agriculture and basic sciences, rather than being merely preparatory for secondary education.
• Financial Support: Recommended increased financial grants from provincial funds for primary education.
• Neglect of Secondary Education by Government: Suggested that government should gradually withdraw from direct management of secondary schools and encourage private enterprise.

The Hunter Commission's recommendations led to a significant expansion of primary schools and greater involvement of local bodies in their administration, though funding remained a challenge.

Lord Curzon’s Policy of 1901 (Indian Universities Act 1904)

Lord Curzon's educational policy aimed at improving the quality and efficiency of education, primarily focusing on higher education and tightening government control, often at the expense of mass primary education.

Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, was critical of the existing educational system, which he believed lacked quality and produced 'literates' without real education. His policies, largely influenced by the Simla Education Conference of 1901 and culminating in the Indian Universities Act of 1904, had the following implications for primary education:

• Focus on Quality over Quantity: Curzon believed in improving the quality of existing institutions rather than expanding their numbers indiscriminately.
• Government Control: He increased government control over educational institutions, particularly universities, through stricter regulations and official majority in governing bodies.
• Neglect of Primary Education: While theoretically acknowledging the importance of primary education, Curzon's policy did not prioritize substantial financial allocation for its expansion. Funds were largely directed towards reforming universities and secondary education.
• Teacher Training and Inspection: There was some emphasis on improving teacher training and implementing a more rigorous system of inspection for schools.
• Critique: Curzon's policies were criticized for being elitist, centralizing power, and not adequately addressing the need for mass primary education.

Despite some positive reforms in administration and teacher training, Curzon's era is generally viewed as one where primary education for the masses did not receive the priority or funding it desperately needed.

Gokhale’s Contribution to Primary Education

Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a prominent Indian nationalist leader who passionately advocated for compulsory and free primary education for all children in India.

Gokhale championed the cause of universal primary education in the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1910, he moved a resolution for the introduction of free and compulsory primary education in India, proposing that it be gradually introduced in areas where local bodies desired it and where a certain percentage of boys were already attending school.

• Key Efforts:
  • Resolution of 1910: Moved a resolution urging the government to make primary education free and compulsory.
  • Bill of 1911: Introduced a private member's bill in 1911 to make primary education compulsory, proposing that local bodies should have the power to introduce it in their areas, with the government bearing two-thirds of the additional expenditure.
  • Impact: Although his bill was defeated, Gokhale's persistent efforts drew significant public attention to the issue and laid the groundwork for future legislation on compulsory primary education. He is revered as a pioneer in the movement for mass education in India.

Wardha Scheme of 1935 (Basic Education / Nai Talim)

The Wardha Scheme of Education, proposed by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937, advocated for 'Basic Education' or 'Nai Talim', emphasizing learning through productive manual work and vocational training, making education self-sufficient and relevant to life.

Mahatma Gandhi presented his ideas on education at the All India National Education Conference in Wardha in 1937. The scheme was formulated by a committee under Dr. Zakir Husain. Its core principles included:

• Craft-Centered Education: Education should revolve around a basic craft (e.g., spinning, weaving, carpentry, agriculture). Learning academic subjects would be integrated with practical work.
• Mother Tongue as Medium: Instruction should be imparted in the child's mother tongue.
• Self-Sufficiency: The scheme aimed for education to be self-supporting to some extent, with the products of the students' craftwork contributing to the school's expenses.
• Seven Years of Free and Compulsory Education: Proposed for children aged 7 to 14 years.
• Holistic Development: Focused on the all-round development of the child – head, heart, and hand.

The Wardha Scheme represented a radical departure from conventional academic education, seeking to make education practical, socially relevant, and rooted in Indian culture. It greatly influenced post-independence educational thought.

Primary Education Act in Assam 1926

The Primary Education Act in Assam of 1926 was a significant provincial legislation aimed at regulating and expanding primary education in the province, allowing local bodies to introduce compulsory primary education.

Following the recommendations of various commissions and the increasing demand for primary education, provincial governments in British India began enacting their own primary education acts. The Assam Primary Education Act of 1926 empowered local authorities (such as District Boards and Municipal Boards) to declare primary education compulsory within their respective areas, provided they could arrange for the necessary funding and infrastructure.

• Key Provisions:
  • Permitted local bodies to implement compulsory primary education.
  • Outlined procedures for the establishment, maintenance, and inspection of primary schools.
  • Defined the roles and responsibilities of local authorities and the provincial government in promoting primary education.
  • Aimed to increase enrollment and attendance at the primary level.

This Act was a crucial step towards institutionalizing and expanding primary education in Assam, reflecting the growing understanding of its importance for societal development.

Universalisation of Primary Education Since Independence

Constitutional Provisions and Early Initiatives

After India gained independence, the universalisation of primary education became a constitutional directive and a national priority.

• Article 45 (Original): The Directive Principle of State Policy in the original Constitution mandated that "The State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years."
• 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002: This amendment made significant changes:
  • Article 21A: Inserted, making the Right to Education a Fundamental Right for children between 6 and 14 years. "The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine."
  • Article 45 (Amended): Changed to state: "The State shall endeavor to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years."
  • Article 51A (k): Added as a Fundamental Duty, stating that it is the duty of every citizen who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

Major Programmes and Policies

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a flagship program of the Government of India launched in 2001, aiming for the universalisation of elementary education (6-14 years) in a time-bound manner.

SSA focuses on providing useful and relevant elementary education for all children. It is an effort to provide an opportunity for improving human capabilities to all children, through provision of community-owned quality education in a mission mode.

• Key Objectives:
  • All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School or 'Back-to-School' camp by 2003.
  • All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
  • All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
  • Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life.
  • Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010.
  • Universal retention by 2010.
• Components: Opening of new schools, alternative schooling facilities, construction of classrooms and toilets, provision of free textbooks, teacher training, academic support, and community participation.

Right to Education (RTE) Act 2009

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, operationalizes Article 21A, ensuring free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years as a fundamental right.

The RTE Act came into force on 1 April 2010. It legally mandates specific provisions to ensure this right:

• Free and Compulsory Education: No child is liable to pay any kind of fee or charges for elementary education.
• Norms and Standards for Schools: Lays down standards relating to pupil-teacher ratios, school buildings, minimum working days, teacher working hours, etc.
• Prohibition of Private Tuition by Teachers: Government school teachers are prohibited from engaging in private tuition.
• No Detention Policy (initially): Mandated that no child shall be held back in any class or expelled from school till the completion of elementary education. (This provision was later amended to allow for detention in certain cases).
• Admission for Out-of-School Children: Special provisions for admitting unadmitted or out-of-school children to an age-appropriate class.
• 25% Reservation for EWS: Mandates 25% reservation for children from economically weaker sections and disadvantaged groups in private unaided schools.
• Curriculum Development: Calls for a curriculum that ensures the all-round development of the child, building on the child's knowledge, potentiality, and talent.

Mid-day Meal Scheme (MDMS)

The Mid-day Meal Scheme is a school meal program of the Government of India designed to better the nutritional standing of school-age children nationwide.

Launched in 1995 as the National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), and later rebranded and expanded, the MDMS aims to enhance enrollment, retention, and attendance in primary schools, while simultaneously improving nutritional levels among children.

• Objectives:
  • Improve the nutritional status of children in elementary education.
  • Encourage poor children, belonging to disadvantaged sections, to attend school more regularly and help them concentrate on classroom activities.
  • Provide nutritional support to children of primary stage in drought-affected areas during summer vacations.
• Impact: The scheme has been instrumental in reducing classroom hunger, increasing school enrollment and attendance, and promoting social equity by providing a common meal to children of all backgrounds.

District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)

The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was a centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1994 to revitalize primary education in selected educationally backward districts with low female literacy rates.

DPEP adopted a decentralized approach to planning and management, focusing on district-specific needs and strategies. It aimed at achieving universal access, retention, and improvement in learning achievement.

• Key Focus Areas:
  • Increasing access and retention.
  • Improving learning achievement.
  • Reducing disparities (gender and social).
  • Strengthening institutional capacity.
  • Promoting decentralized management and community participation.
• Implementation: Implemented in several phases across various states, DPEP laid the groundwork for future large-scale interventions like SSA by demonstrating the effectiveness of district-specific planning and community involvement.

Challenges and Achievements in Universalisation

Despite significant progress, the goal of universal primary education continues to face challenges.

• Challenges:
  • Access and Equity: Reaching children in remote areas, children with special needs, and those from marginalized communities.
  • Quality of Education: Ensuring effective learning outcomes, improving teaching methodologies, and adequate teacher training.
  • Infrastructure: Lack of proper school buildings, sanitation facilities, and learning materials in many schools.
  • Teacher Shortage and Absenteeism: Gaps in teacher availability, particularly in rural and disadvantaged areas, and issues of teacher absenteeism.
  • Funding: Adequate and consistent funding for educational initiatives.
  • Retention: High dropout rates, especially at the transition from primary to upper primary.
• Achievements:
  • Increased Enrollment: Significant rise in primary school enrollment rates, with India nearing universal access to primary schooling.
  • Reduced Gender Gap: Notable progress in increasing girls' enrollment and reducing the gender gap in primary education.
  • Infrastructure Development: Construction of numerous schools and classrooms, improving access.
  • Policy Framework: Establishment of a robust legal and policy framework (RTE Act, SSA) to support universal education.
  • Social Inclusion: Greater inclusion of children from Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other backward classes in the education system.
  • Nutritional Support: MDMS has effectively addressed classroom hunger and improved children's health.

The journey towards universal, equitable, and quality primary education in India and Assam is ongoing, with continuous efforts to overcome existing challenges and build upon past achievements.