Unit II. Sher Shah Suri and Re-establishment of Mughal Rule
1. Conquests of Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Suri, originally named Farid Khan, rose from a petty jagirdar to become the ruler of Northern India after defeating the Mughals. His military campaigns were marked by meticulous planning, strategic alliances, and swift execution.
Rise to Power
Sher Shah initially served under the ruler of Bihar and later gained control over important territories. His decisive military success came against Humayun, the Mughal Emperor, establishing the Sur Empire.
Major Military Campaigns
- Bihar and Bengal: Consolidated his early power base by subduing local chiefs and securing rich resource areas.
- Chunar: Acquired the strategic fort of Chunar through diplomacy and strategic marriages, securing a vital base.
- Kannauj and Chausa (Against Humayun): Defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa (1539) and the Battle of Kannauj (1540), which completely ousted the Mughals from India and forced Humayun into exile.
- Malwa: Annexed Malwa, expanding his western frontiers.
- Rajputana (Marwar and Mewar): Fought formidable campaigns against Rajput rulers, most notably at the Battle of Samel (Jaziran) against Maldeo of Marwar. Sher Shah famously remarked that he almost lost the empire of India for a handful of millet due to the fierce resistance of the Rajputs.
- Punjab and Rohtasgarh: Subdued the Gakkhars in Punjab and built the massive Rohtasgarh Fort to secure the northwestern frontier against potential invasions.
Definition: Conquests of Sher Shah Suri refer to the military expansion campaigns undertaken by Farid Khan (Sher Shah) to establish the Sur dynasty over Northern India after displacing the second Mughal Emperor, Humayun.
Exam-Oriented Notes: Memorize the years and names of the Battle of Chausa (1539) and the Battle of Kannauj (1540). Always connect his military conquests with his need to secure trade routes and frontier safety.
Common Mistakes: Students often confuse the exact sequence of his Rajput campaigns or attribute Mughal expulsion solely to luck rather than Sher Shah's superior generalship.
2. Sher Shah’s Administration and Land Revenue System
Sher Shah Suri is renowned not just as a conqueror, but as a brilliant administrator whose administrative framework served as a precursor to the famous Mughal administrative system later perfected by Akbar.
Central and Provincial Administration
Sher Shah kept absolute power concentrated in his hands while maintaining an efficient bureaucracy. The empire was divided into administrative units for effective governance:
- Sarkars (Districts): Each Sarkar was headed by two chief officials: a Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (law and order) and a Munsif-i-Munsifan (revenue and civil justice).
- Parganas (Sub-districts): Composed of a group of villages, managed by a Shiqdar, Munsif, Treasurer (Potdar), and writers (Karkuns).
- Villages: The lowest unit of administration, managed by local headmen (Muqaddam) and village accountants (Patwari).
Land Revenue System
Sher Shah revolutionized the agrarian economy by introducing a systematic and scientific land revenue administration based on measurement and classification.
- Land Measurement (Zabt System): Land was carefully measured using the Sikandari gaz (yard) as a standard unit of measurement.
- Assessment and Collection: The state demand was generally fixed at one-third of the average produce. Peasants were given title deeds (Patta) specifying their land share, and they signed acceptance documents (Qabuliyat).
- Relief Measures: In times of famine or crop failure, state loans (Taqavi) were advanced, and revenue remissions were granted.
| Land Classification | Description |
|---|---|
| Polaj | Land cultivated every year without break. |
| Parauti | Land kept fallow intermittently to recover fertility. |
| Chachar | Land left fallow for three to four years. |
| Bangar | Land uncultivated for five or more years. |
Military and Currency Reforms
- Army: Revived the branding of horses (Dagh) and maintaining descriptive rolls of soldiers (Chehra) to prevent corruption. He maintained a massive standing army.
- Currency: Introduced the silver coin known as the Rupiah, which remained the basis of the coinage system for centuries, along with copper coins called Paisa.
- Communication and Transport: Built extensive roads, most notably the Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon to Attock, planted shady trees, built sarais (rest houses) at regular intervals, and established an efficient horse-post spy system.
Law / Important Statement: "Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful." — Sher Shah Suri
Practical Example: The issuance of the Patta and Qabuliyat system ensured that peasants knew exactly how much tax they owed, eliminating arbitrary extortion by local intermediaries.
Important Observations: Sher Shah’s revenue framework formed the direct foundation upon which Akbar and Todar Mal built the Mughal land revenue system.
3. Re-establishment of Mughal Rule: Hemu Vikramaditya and Rana Pratap
Following the death of Sher Shah Suri and the eventual decline of the weak Sur successors, the Mughals under Humayun and later Akbar sought to reclaim their lost Indian territories, facing fierce resistance from regional powers.
Return of Humayun
Taking advantage of the civil wars among Sher Shah's successors, Humayun returned from Persia, defeated the Sur forces at the Battle of Sirhind in 1555, and successfully re-established the Mughal Empire in Delhi, though his reign was cut short by his sudden death.
Hemu Vikramaditya
Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, popularly known as Hemu, was a Hindu general and chief minister of the Sur ruler Adil Shah Suri. He rose rapidly from humble beginnings as a salt merchant to become a brilliant military commander.
- Military Prowess: Hemu won 22 successive battles against Afghan rebels and Mughal commanders, establishing an independent rule in Delhi briefly after occupying it in 1556.
- Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Fought between the Mughal forces (led by Bairam Khan on behalf of the young Akbar) and Hemu Vikramaditya. Hemu was tragically struck in the eye by a stray arrow while leading his army to near-certain victory, leading to panic, his capture, and execution. This battle sealed the definitive re-establishment of Mughal supremacy.
Rana Pratap (Maharana Pratap of Mewar)
Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar fiercely resisted the imperial expansion of Mughal Emperor Akbar, refusing to submit to Mughal suzerainty despite immense pressure.
- Battle of Haldighati (1576): Fought between the Mughal army led by Man Singh I and the Mewar forces led by Rana Pratap. Although the battle ended inconclusively with heavy losses on both sides, Akbar failed to capture or subdue Rana Pratap.
- Guerrilla Warfare and Later Resistance: Operating from the rugged hills and forests of the Aravalli range, Rana Pratap adopted guerrilla tactics, refusing to compromise his honor or independence. He eventually recovered much of Mewar (excluding Chittor) before his death.
| Feature | Hemu Vikramaditya | Rana Pratap |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Role | ||
| Conflict | Fought Mughals at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) | Fought Mughals at the Battle of Haldighati (1576) |
| Outcome | Defeated and executed after being struck by an arrow | Maintained prolonged guerrilla resistance and independence in hilly tracts |
Definition: Re-establishment of Mughal rule denotes the recovery of political dominance in Northern India by the Mughal dynasty starting with Humayun's victory at Sirhind in 1555 and cemented by Akbar's victory at Panipat in 1556.
Exam-Oriented Notes: Remember the two critical battles in this section: the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) involving Hemu and Akbar/Bairam Khan, and the Battle of Haldighati (1576) involving Rana Pratap and Man Singh/Akbar.
Common Mistakes: Students often assume Hemu was a Mughal general; in reality, he fought against the Mughals on behalf of the Sur dynasty. Similarly, note that Haldighati was not a decisive Mughal victory that subjugated Mewar, as Rana Pratap successfully escaped and continued his resistance.