Unit III: Akbar's Era - Administration and Policies

Akbar's Administration: Central & Provincial

Emperor Akbar established a highly centralized and efficient administrative system, designed to integrate diverse regions and communities under Mughal rule. This system was divided into central and provincial levels, each with clearly defined roles and responsibilities.

Central Administration

The Central Administration under Akbar was headed by the Emperor himself, who held supreme executive, legislative, judicial, and military authority. He was assisted by a council of ministers and other high officials who managed various departments.

Key Officials and Departments:

• Vakil (Prime Minister): Initially, the most powerful official, acting as the Emperor's chief advisor and deputy. Over time, Akbar curtailed the Vakil's absolute power.
• Diwan (Minister of Finance): Responsible for revenue and expenditure, managing the imperial treasury, and supervising the land revenue system. Todar Mal was a famous Diwan.
• Mir Bakhshi (Paymaster General): Head of the military department, responsible for recruitment, organization, discipline, and payment of the army, including the Mansabdars. He also presented candidates for appointment to the Emperor.
• Sadr-us-Sudur (Chief Sadr): Head of the ecclesiastical department, responsible for religious endowments (waqfs), charities, and grants to religious scholars (madad-i-ma'ash). He also acted as the chief judge in religious matters (Qazi-ul-Quzat).
• Mir Saman (Lord High Steward): In charge of the imperial household, including factories (karkhanas), stores, workshops, and supplies for the court.
• Qazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Qazi): The chief judge of the empire, responsible for justice in civil and criminal cases, often the Sadr-us-Sudur held this position.

Observation: Akbar's Central Administration aimed for a balance of power, preventing any single official from becoming too dominant, thus strengthening the Emperor's position.

Provincial Administration

Akbar divided his vast empire into several provinces, known as Subahs, for administrative convenience. Each Subah was a miniature replica of the central government, with its own set of officials mirroring those at the center.

Divisions of Provincial Administration:

• Subah: The largest administrative unit, headed by a Subedar.
• Sarkar: A division within a Subah, similar to a district, headed by a Faujdar.
• Pargana: A subdivision of a Sarkar, comprising several villages, headed by a Shiqdar.
• Gram (Village): The basic unit of administration, managed by local self-governing bodies and officials like the Muqaddam (headman) and Patwari (accountant).

Key Provincial Officials:

• Subedar (Governor): The chief executive and military head of the Subah, responsible for maintaining law and order, ensuring peace, and implementing imperial orders.
• Diwan (Provincial Diwan): Independent of the Subedar, he was responsible for the revenue administration of the Subah, collecting taxes, and managing provincial finances. This separation of powers prevented abuse and ensured checks and balances.
• Bakhshi (Provincial Bakhshi): Assisted the Mir Bakhshi in the central government by maintaining records of the provincial army, Mansabdars, and their jagirs.
• Sadr (Provincial Sadr): Responsible for religious affairs, grants, and charities within the Subah, reporting to the Sadr-us-Sudur.
• Qazi (Provincial Qazi): Administered justice in the Subah, working under the Chief Qazi.
• Kotwal: The chief police officer in major towns and cities, responsible for law and order, public safety, and controlling markets.
• Faujdar: Military officer and law enforcement head in a Sarkar, assisting the Subedar in maintaining peace.
• Amil or Amalguzar: Revenue collector in a Sarkar, assessing and collecting land revenue.

Important Note: The separation of powers between the Subedar (military and executive) and the Provincial Diwan (revenue) was a deliberate design by Akbar to prevent concentration of power and reduce chances of rebellion or corruption.

Land Revenue System & Mansabdari System

Akbar's Land Revenue System (Zabt or Todar Mal's System)

Akbar's land revenue system, famously associated with his finance minister Raja Todar Mal, was a significant reform aimed at ensuring a stable and equitable income for the state while protecting the rights of the cultivators. This system, also known as the Zabt system or Dahsala system, was primarily implemented in the core areas of the empire.

Key Features:

• Measurement of Land: Land was systematically measured using a uniform yard (Ilahi gaz) made of iron rings.
• Survey and Classification: Agricultural lands were surveyed and classified based on their fertility and cultivation frequency.
  • Polaj: Land cultivated annually.
  • Parauti: Land left fallow for a short period (1-2 years) to recover fertility.
  • Chachar: Land left fallow for 3-4 years.
  • Banjar: Uncultivated land for five or more years.
• Assessment of Produce (Dahsala System):

  Revenue assessment was based on the average produce of the last ten years (1570-1580 AD). For each crop, the average yield per bigha (unit of land) was calculated. One-third of this average produce was fixed as the state's share. This average was then converted into cash, using the average prices of the previous ten years in different localities.

  Definition: Dahsala System - A land revenue system introduced by Akbar where the average produce and prices of crops over the last ten years were used to fix the state's share (one-third of the average produce), which was then converted into cash.

• Payment Options: Farmers were generally allowed to pay revenue in cash, though payment in kind was also accepted in some areas or under specific circumstances.
• Patta and Qabuliyat:
  • Patta: A title deed issued by the state to the cultivator, stating the area of land held and the amount of revenue to be paid.
  • Qabuliyat: An agreement or deed of acceptance signed by the cultivator, agreeing to pay the specified revenue.
• Role of Amil/Amalguzar: These officials were responsible for collecting revenue, preventing exploitation, and encouraging cultivation.

Advantages of the Zabt System:

• Stability: Provided a more stable and predictable revenue income for the state.
• Equity: Aimed for a fairer assessment based on land productivity and average prices.
• Protection of Cultivators: Standardized measurement and fixed demand protected peasants from arbitrary assessments by local officials.
• Encouraged Cultivation: Classification of land and revenue concessions for fallow land encouraged bringing more land under cultivation.

Limitations:

• High Demand: One-third share could still be high, especially during bad harvests.
• Limited Reach: Primarily implemented in the fertile regions of North India and parts of Gujarat and Malwa, not throughout the entire empire.
• Corruption: Despite safeguards, local officials could still exploit cultivators.

The Mansabdari System

The Mansabdari system was a unique administrative system introduced by Akbar in 1573. It was a grading system used to fix the rank, salary, and military responsibilities of high-ranking officials in the Mughal Empire. The term Mansab literally means "rank" or "position".

Definition: Mansabdari System - A comprehensive administrative and military grading system implemented by Akbar, where every official was assigned a numerical rank (Mansab) determining their status, salary, and the number of troops they were required to maintain.

Key Features:

• Dual Ranks (Zat and Sawar):
  • Zat: This indicated the Mansabdar's personal rank and status, and the amount of personal pay he received. It reflected his position in the imperial hierarchy.
  • Sawar: This indicated the number of cavalrymen (horses and horsemen) the Mansabdar was required to maintain and bring to imperial service. The Mansabdar was paid for these cavalrymen.

  Example: A Mansabdar with 5000 Zat and 4000 Sawar meant he held a personal rank of 5000 and was expected to maintain 4000 cavalrymen.

• Integration of Civil and Military: The Mansabdari system integrated civil and military services. All high officials, whether serving in the civil administration or the military, held a Mansab.
• Hierarchical Structure: Mansabdars were divided into various grades, ranging from 10 to 10,000 (later up to 12,000 for princes). Nobles with a Zat of 5000 or more were considered high-ranking.
• Jagirs (Land Assignments): Mansabdars were generally paid through assignments of land called Jagirs, from which they collected revenue. These jagirs were not hereditary and were frequently transferred to prevent Mansabdars from developing local roots and becoming independent. This system was called the Jagirdari System, which was intricately linked with the Mansabdari system.
• Conditions of Service: Mansabdars had to maintain their contingent (horses and cavalrymen) in good condition, and they were regularly inspected (dagh – branding of horses and chehra – descriptive roll of soldiers) to prevent corruption.
• No Hereditary Rights: Mansabs were not hereditary. Upon the death of a Mansabdar, his jagir reverted to the state (escheat), and his property was largely confiscated, although his children might be granted fresh Mansabs.

Impact and Significance:

• Centralization of Power: Helped in creating a strong, centralized army and administration directly loyal to the Emperor.
• Administrative Uniformity: Ensured a uniform system of administration throughout the empire.
• Recruitment and Loyalty: Enabled the recruitment of diverse groups (Rajputs, Persians, Afghans, Indian Muslims) into the imperial service, fostering loyalty to the Mughal throne.
• Military Efficiency: Although there were inherent weaknesses, the system aimed to ensure a well-equipped and trained cavalry, which was the backbone of the Mughal army.
• Checks on Nobility: The non-hereditary nature and frequent transfers of jagirs prevented the growth of powerful, entrenched nobility.

Common Mistake: Confusing Zat and Sawar. Zat defines personal rank and pay, while Sawar defines the contingent to be maintained.

Akbar's Religious Policy

Akbar's religious policy underwent a significant transformation over his reign, evolving from orthodox Sunni Islam to a policy of broad religious tolerance and universal peace. This policy, known as Sulh-i-Kul, aimed at fostering harmony among diverse religious groups within his empire.

Evolution of Akbar's Religious Policy

1. Early Orthodoxy (up to c. 1575): Initially, Akbar adhered to orthodox Sunni Islam, showing respect for Ulamas (Islamic scholars) and observing traditional Islamic practices.
2. Building the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) - 1575: Akbar built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri. Initially, it was open only to Muslim theologians to discuss religious and legal issues. However, the bitter disputes among different sects of Ulamas disillusioned Akbar.
3. Opening Ibadat Khana to All Religions (c. 1578): Disappointed by the sectarianism of the Ulamas, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to scholars of all religions – Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Sufis. These discussions led him to realize the commonalities and differences among various faiths and the narrow-mindedness of many religious leaders.
4. Promulgation of Mahzar (Infallibility Decree) - 1579:

   Definition: Mahzar (Infallibility Decree) - A document signed by leading Ulamas in 1579, which declared Akbar as the Imam-i-Adil (just ruler) and empowered him to choose between conflicting interpretations of Islamic law, provided they were not against the Quran. This effectively reduced the authority of the orthodox Ulamas and strengthened Akbar's position in religious matters.

   The Mahzar made Akbar the final arbiter in religious disputes, giving him greater religious authority and reducing the influence of orthodox clergy.

5. Development of Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith) - 1582:

   Definition: Din-i-Ilahi - A syncretic religious path formulated by Akbar, not a new religion, but more of an ethical code or a spiritual brotherhood. It combined elements from various religions, emphasizing virtues like piety, benevolence, abstinence, and non-violence. Its core principle was the oneness of God.

   Din-i-Ilahi emphasized universal peace, tolerance, and monotheism. It had few adherents and was not enforced, suggesting it was more of an intellectual exercise or a personal spiritual quest for Akbar rather than an attempt to establish a new religion.

Key Aspects of Akbar's Religious Policy

• Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Peace):

  Definition: Sulh-i-Kul - The cornerstone of Akbar's religious policy, meaning "universal peace" or "absolute peace." It advocated for tolerance and understanding among people of all faiths, without discrimination. This principle guided his administrative and political decisions, promoting social cohesion.

  This policy fostered mutual respect and prevented the state from discriminating against any religious group.

• Abolition of Jaziya (1564): Akbar abolished the Jaziya, a poll tax levied on non-Muslims, demonstrating his commitment to treating all subjects equally, regardless of their faith.
• Abolition of Pilgrimage Tax (1563): He also abolished the tax levied on Hindu pilgrims visiting religious sites.
• Grants and Patronage: Akbar provided grants to various religious institutions and individuals, including Hindu temples, Jain monks, and Christian priests, showcasing his non-sectarian approach.
• Translation Department: He established a translation department to translate Sanskrit texts (like the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Atharvaveda, and the Bhagavata Purana) into Persian, promoting cross-cultural understanding.
• Respect for all religions: He celebrated Hindu festivals like Diwali and Raksha Bandhan and showed interest in Sikhism and Jainism.

Impact of Akbar's Religious Policy

• Strengthened Mughal Empire: His policy of religious tolerance won the loyalty and support of a vast non-Muslim population, particularly the Rajputs, contributing to the stability and expansion of the empire.
• Cultural Synthesis: Led to a greater cultural interaction and synthesis between different communities.
• Reduced Religious Strife: Minimised sectarian conflicts and fostered a sense of unity among diverse subjects.
• Personal Legacy: Established Akbar as a far-sighted and enlightened ruler, distinguishing his reign from many contemporary monarchs who enforced religious uniformity.

Akbar's Rajput Policy

Akbar's Rajput policy was a landmark departure from the policies of earlier Muslim rulers in India. Instead of outright confrontation and subjugation, Akbar adopted a policy of conciliation, alliance, and mutual respect. This policy proved to be highly successful in integrating the powerful Rajput states into the Mughal imperial structure and securing their loyalty.

Features of Akbar's Rajput Policy

• Matrimonial Alliances: Akbar initiated a policy of strategic matrimonial alliances with various Rajput royal families.
  • He himself married Harkha Bai (Jodha Bai), daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber (Jaipur).
  • He encouraged similar alliances between Mughal princes and Rajput princesses. These marriages were not forced but were usually a result of mutual understanding and political expediency.

  Important Note: While some saw these alliances as a sign of submission, Akbar ensured that Rajput brides were not forced to convert to Islam and were allowed to practice their religion freely in the Mughal household, which was a significant gesture of respect.

• High Positions and Trust: Akbar appointed prominent Rajput chiefs to high administrative and military positions within the Mughal Mansabdari system.
  • Raja Man Singh of Amber became one of the highest-ranking Mansabdars and a trusted general and governor.
  • Raja Bhagwant Das and Raja Todar Mal (though not Rajput by origin, he was part of this conciliatory policy as a Hindu) were other notable figures.

  These appointments gave Rajputs a vested interest in the stability and success of the Mughal Empire.

• Autonomy and Non-interference: Akbar generally respected the internal autonomy of Rajput states. He did not annex their territories unnecessarily and allowed them to retain their traditions, customs, and laws. This policy fostered a sense of partnership rather than conquest.
• Religious Tolerance: His broader policy of religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul), including the abolition of Jaziya and pilgrimage tax, greatly reassured the Rajputs and other Hindu subjects, gaining their trust and reducing religious friction.
• Conquest and Coercion (where necessary): While conciliation was the primary approach, Akbar did not shy away from military action against those Rajput states that resisted his authority, most notably Mewar under Rana Pratap. However, even after military victories, his policy was often to reinstate the conquered ruler or a family member, provided they accepted Mughal suzerainty.

Impact of Akbar's Rajput Policy

• Strengthened the Mughal Empire: The Rajput policy transformed potential adversaries into loyal allies, providing military strength and administrative talent to the Mughal Empire. Rajputs formed the backbone of the Mughal army and bureaucracy for many generations.
• Political Stability: It ensured political stability in a vast and strategically important region, allowing Akbar to focus on expanding and consolidating other parts of his empire.
• Cultural Synthesis: Led to greater cultural exchange and synthesis between Mughal and Rajput traditions in art, architecture, music, and court etiquette.
• Loyalty and Support: Secured the loyalty of a significant warrior class, which was crucial for maintaining imperial authority across a diverse land.
• Enduring Legacy: Akbar's Rajput policy became a cornerstone of Mughal diplomacy and governance, largely continued by his successors (Jahangir and Shah Jahan), until Aurangzeb's later deviations.