Unit V: Regional Resistance and the Rise of Maratha Power

Resistance of Mewar and Marwar

The Rajput states of Mewar and Marwar played a crucial role in resisting Mughal expansion and asserting their autonomy. Their resistance was characterized by fierce battles, strategic alliances, and a steadfast commitment to their ancestral lands and honor.

Mewar's Resistance

Mewar, a prominent Rajput kingdom, consistently challenged Mughal supremacy. Key figures in this resistance include:

• Maharana Pratap (1572-1597):
  • Refused to accept Mughal suzerainty under Emperor Akbar.
  • Fought the famous Battle of Haldighati in 1576 against Mughal forces led by Man Singh I of Amber. Despite heavy losses, Pratap continued his guerrilla warfare.
  • He became a symbol of Rajput valor and independence, reclaiming much of his lost territory before his death.
• Rana Raj Singh (1652-1680):
  • Challenged Aurangzeb's policies, particularly his religious intolerance and the re-imposition of Jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims).
  • Provided refuge to Prince Akbar (Aurangzeb's rebel son) and maintained an independent stance against the Mughals.
  • His resistance was part of a broader Rajput rebellion during Aurangzeb's reign.

Marwar's Resistance

Marwar (Jodhpur) also witnessed significant resistance against Mughal authority, particularly after the death of Maharaja Jaswant Singh.

• Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1638-1678):
  • A loyal Mughal general, he served with distinction. However, after his death in 1678 without a male heir (or with a surviving infant son, Ajit Singh, whose claim Aurangzeb disputed), Aurangzeb attempted to annex Marwar.
• Durgadas Rathore and Ajit Singh:
  • Led the Rathor Rebellion against Aurangzeb. Durgadas Rathore, a Marwari noble, became the champion of infant Ajit Singh's cause.
  • They resisted Mughal occupation for decades, utilizing guerrilla tactics and forming alliances with other Rajput states and even the Marathas.
  • Ajit Singh eventually became the Maharaja of Marwar after Aurangzeb's death, regaining full control.

Important Observation: The resistance of Mewar and Marwar demonstrated the formidable challenge regional powers posed to the vast Mughal Empire, often forcing emperors to divert significant resources and attention.

Rise of Maratha Power under Shivaji

The Maratha Empire emerged as a dominant force in 17th-century India, largely due to the brilliant leadership and strategic genius of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The rise of Maratha power marked a significant shift in the political landscape of the Deccan and subsequently, India.

Factors Contributing to the Rise

• Geographical Factors: The rugged terrain of the Western Ghats provided natural defenses and favored guerrilla warfare.
• Bhakti Movement: The teachings of Marathi saints fostered a sense of unity and cultural identity among the Marathas.
• Leadership of Shivaji: His vision, military acumen, and administrative skills were paramount.
• Decline of Deccan Sultanates: The constant conflict between the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar) and the Mughals created a power vacuum and opportunities for the Marathas.

Shivaji Maharaj (1627/1630 – 1680)

• Early Life and Training:
  • Son of Shahji Bhonsle (a prominent Jagirdar) and Jijabai.
  • Trained in military arts and administration under Dadoji Kondadev.
  • Inspired by his mother's ideals of independence and Hindu dharma.
• Establishment of Swaraj (Self-Rule):
  • Began his career by capturing forts near Pune, starting with Torna (1646).
  • Used Ganimi Kava (guerrilla warfare) effectively against larger Bijapur and Mughal armies.
• Key Events and Conflicts:
  • Confrontation with Afzal Khan (1659): Shivaji famously killed Afzal Khan, a general sent by Bijapur, during a deceptive meeting, greatly enhancing his reputation.
  • Raid on Shaista Khan (1663): Shivaji launched a daring night raid on the Mughal viceroy Shaista Khan's camp in Pune, wounding Khan and forcing his retreat.
  • Sack of Surat (1664 and 1670): Raided the rich Mughal port city of Surat twice, acquiring immense wealth.
  • Treaty of Purandar (1665): Forced to sign a treaty with Jai Singh I, a Rajput general of Aurangzeb, ceding 23 forts to the Mughals.
  • Visit to Agra (1666): Went to Agra to meet Aurangzeb but was insulted and imprisoned. He made a dramatic escape, which further cemented his legendary status.
  • Coronation (1674): Crowned Chhatrapati (paramount sovereign) at Raigad, formally establishing the independent Maratha kingdom (Swaraj).

Definition: Swaraj refers to self-rule or independence, a core principle of Shivaji's political philosophy, aiming to establish an autonomous Maratha kingdom free from external (Mughal or Deccan Sultanate) control.

Shivaji’s Administration

Shivaji was not only a military genius but also an astute administrator who laid the foundation for a stable and efficient state. His administrative system aimed at the welfare of his subjects and efficient governance.

Ashtapradhan Mandal (Council of Eight Ministers)

Shivaji established a council of eight ministers to assist him in the affairs of the state. This was not a cabinet in the modern sense, as ministers were accountable to Shivaji alone.

Military Administration

• Efficient Army: Shivaji maintained a well-disciplined and highly organized standing army (cavalry and infantry).
• Forts: The backbone of his defense. He maintained around 250 forts, each under three officers of equal rank (Hawaldar, Subhedar, Sarnobat) to prevent treachery.
• Navy: Established a small but effective navy to protect his coastline and trade routes.
• Strict Discipline: No women or dancing girls were allowed in the military camps. Booty was to be submitted to the state treasury.

Revenue Administration

• Ryotwari System: Land was directly assessed and managed by the state, eliminating intermediaries like Zamindars.
• Land Measurement: Land revenue was based on a scientific measurement system using a 'Kathi' (measuring rod). The share of the state was initially 2/5th (40%) of the produce.
• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi:
  • Chauth: A levy of 1/4th (25%) of the revenue paid to the Marathas to prevent them from raiding the territory. It was primarily a protective payment.
  • Sardeshmukhi: An additional levy of 1/10th (10%) claimed by Shivaji as the hereditary Sardeshmukh (chief headman) of the region, asserting his superior rights over other Deshmukhs.
• Abolition of Jagirs: Shivaji abolished the Jagir system (granting land in lieu of salary) and paid his officers in cash, preventing them from becoming too powerful and exploiting peasants.

Justice System

• Simple and expeditious.
• Village Panchayats handled civil disputes.
• Criminal cases were decided by the Patels or other officials.
• The Nyayadhish oversaw the entire system.

Religious Policy

• Shivaji was known for his policy of religious tolerance.
• He respected all religions and protected mosques and religious texts.
• He appointed Muslim officers in his administration and army.

Common Mistake: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were not land revenue taxes from his own Swaraj territories but tributes collected from territories outside or adjacent to his direct control.

Resistance of Sikhs, Jats, Bundelas and Satnamis

Apart from the Marathas and Rajputs, several other regional groups and communities rose in rebellion against the Mughal Empire, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb, due to various political, economic, and religious grievances.

Resistance of Sikhs

The relationship between the Sikh Gurus and the Mughals deteriorated significantly, leading to armed resistance.

• Guru Arjan Dev (1581-1606): Executed by Emperor Jahangir for allegedly blessing Khusrau (Jahangir's rebel son). This marked a turning point, militarizing the Sikh community.
• Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675): Executed by Emperor Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam and for championing the rights of Kashmiri Pandits.
• Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708):
  • Transformed the Sikh community into the Khalsa (the 'pure' ones), a martial brotherhood dedicated to defending Sikh values and resisting oppression (1699).
  • Fought numerous battles against Mughal forces and hill rajas, notably the Battle of Chamkaur and Muktsar.
  • His sons were martyred by the Mughals.
  • He laid the foundation for the future Sikh state.

Resistance of Jats

The Jats, an agrarian community around the Mathura-Agra region, revolted against the oppressive land revenue demands and religious policies of the Mughals.

• Gokula (1669): Led the first major Jat uprising against Aurangzeb, sparked by the destruction of a temple. He was eventually captured and executed.
• Raja Ram (late 17th century): Succeeded Gokula, raided Akbar's tomb at Sikandra, and continued the rebellion.
• Churaman (early 18th century): Consolidated Jat power, established the state of Bharatpur, and built forts like Deeg and Bharatpur, effectively challenging Mughal authority in the region.

Resistance of Bundelas

The Bundelas were a Rajput clan inhabiting the Bundelkhand region (modern-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh) who also challenged Mughal dominance.

• Chhatrasal Bundela (1649-1731):
  • Inspired by Shivaji, he raised the banner of revolt against Aurangzeb in Bundelkhand.
  • He established an independent state, fought numerous battles, and carved out a significant territory for himself.
  • Maintained cordial relations with the Marathas (Peshwa Baji Rao I helped him against the Mughal governor Muhammad Khan Bangash).

Resistance of Satnamis

The Satnamis were a sect of Hindu devotees, largely peasants and artisans, known for their strict monotheistic beliefs and egalitarian outlook, residing in the Narnaul region of Haryana.

• Satnami Revolt (1672):
  • The revolt began over a minor dispute with a Mughal soldier, but quickly escalated into a widespread rebellion due to their grievances against oppressive Mughal administration and religious intolerance.
  • They believed in the power of God's name (Satnam) and were fearless in battle.
  • Aurangzeb sent a large army to suppress them, and after a fierce struggle, the revolt was brutally crushed.
  • Their resistance, though short-lived, highlighted the deep-seated resentment among certain sections of the populace against Mughal rule.

Exam Note: These regional resistances collectively weakened the Mughal Empire and paved the way for the emergence of independent regional states in the 18th century.