Unit I: Disintegration of Mughal Empire and Rise of Marathas

Disintegration of Mughal Empire: Nadir Shah's Invasion

The mighty Mughal Empire, which had reached its zenith under Aurangzeb, began to show signs of decline soon after his death in 1707. A series of weak successors, internal feuds, and the rise of autonomous regional powers gradually chipped away at its authority. This period of decline created an opportune moment for foreign invaders to exploit its vulnerabilities, with Nadir Shah's invasion being a significant blow.

State of the Mughal Empire before Nadir Shah's Invasion (Early 18^th Century)

• Weak Successors: Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) was followed by a rapid succession of incompetent rulers, often puppets in the hands of powerful nobles.
• Factionalism among Nobles: The Mughal court was plagued by intense rivalries between different factions (Irani, Turani, Hindustani, Afghan) vying for power, weakening central administration.
• Rise of Autonomous States: Subahdars (governors) of provinces like Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad, and Rajput states began asserting their independence, paying only nominal allegiance to Delhi.
• Maratha Ascendancy: The Marathas, under Shivaji's successors and later the Peshwas, were rapidly expanding their influence, challenging Mughal authority in the Deccan and beyond.
• Economic Crisis: Declining agricultural output, widespread corruption, and the Jagirdari crisis (shortage of land assignments) led to financial instability.
• Military Weakness: The Mughal army, once formidable, became disorganized, technologically outdated, and lacked strong leadership.

Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739)

Nadir Shah, originally a humble shepherd from Persia, rose to become the ruler of Persia (Iran) in 1736. Known for his military prowess, he had successfully expelled the Afghans from Persia and expanded his empire. He saw the wealthy and weak Mughal Empire as a lucrative target.

Causes of Invasion:

1. Mughal Weakness: The fragmented and decadent state of the Mughal Empire presented an irresistible opportunity for plunder and expansion.
2. Failure to Secure Borders: The Mughal refusal to prevent Afghan rebels (who had fled from Nadir Shah's persecution) from finding refuge in Kabul and Ghazni, which were Mughal territories, was a direct provocation.
3. Desire for Plunder: Nadir Shah was aware of the immense wealth accumulated in the Mughal capital, Delhi, and sought to replenish his treasury.
4. Strategic Ambition: He aimed to secure his eastern frontiers by controlling regions up to the Indus.

Course of the Invasion:

• Advance to Delhi: Nadir Shah launched his invasion in 1738, easily overcoming the weak Mughal defenses in Afghanistan and Punjab. He captured Lahore without significant resistance.
• Battle of Karnal (February 1739): The Mughal army, led by Emperor Muhammad Shah 'Rangila' and his powerful nobles like Nizam-ul-Mulk and Saadat Khan, finally confronted Nadir Shah at Karnal, near Delhi. Despite numerical superiority, the Mughals suffered a crushing defeat due to poor leadership, disunity, and superior Persian tactics. Saadat Khan was captured.
• Sack of Delhi (March - May 1739): After the Battle of Karnal, Nadir Shah marched into Delhi. Initially, he maintained order, but a rumour of his death led to an uprising by some Delhi citizens against Persian soldiers. In retaliation, Nadir Shah ordered a general massacre, resulting in the deaths of thousands and the widespread looting of the city.
• Treaty of Delhi: Muhammad Shah was forced to sign a humiliating treaty, ceding all territories west of the Indus to Nadir Shah and paying an enormous indemnity.

Consequences and Significance:

• Immense Plunder: Nadir Shah carried away an estimated 70 crores of rupees in wealth, including the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne. This plunder crippled the Mughal treasury.
• Political Instability: The invasion exposed the complete bankruptcy of Mughal military and political power, leading to further disintegration.
• Loss of Prestige: The Mughal emperor's authority and prestige plummeted, accelerating the decline of the empire.
• Territorial Losses: Mughal territories west of the Indus (Kabul, Ghazni, Peshawar) were ceded to Persia, weakening its strategic frontiers.
• Emboldening Regional Powers: The invasion emboldened regional rulers and the Marathas to further consolidate their power and expand their territories without fear of strong central opposition.
• Paved Way for Other Invasions: It opened the doors for subsequent invasions, particularly by Ahmad Shah Abdali, Nadir Shah's successor in Afghanistan.

Exam Note: Nadir Shah's invasion was not just a raid for wealth; it was a major turning point that irrevocably exposed and exacerbated the terminal decline of the Mughal Empire, setting the stage for new power struggles in India.

Expansion of the Maratha Kingdom under Peshwas and Maratha Confederacy

The Maratha power, initially consolidated by Shivaji Maharaj, underwent a significant transformation after his death. The shift of power from the Chatrapati (Maratha King) to the Peshwa (Prime Minister) during the early 18^th century marked a new phase of Maratha expansion and the emergence of the Maratha Confederacy.

Rise of the Peshwas

After Shivaji, the Maratha kingdom witnessed internal conflicts. Rajaram's widow Tarabai and Shahu (Aurangzeb's captive grandson of Shivaji) contended for the throne. Shahu eventually ascended the throne with the support of his capable Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath.

• Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720):
  • Consolidated Shahu's position and centralized Maratha administration.
  • Acquired the right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from Mughal Deccan provinces (1719), legitimizing Maratha claims.
  • Laid the foundation for Maratha expansion by establishing strong relationships with Maratha chiefs.
• Baji Rao I (1720-1740):
  • Considered the greatest of the Peshwas and a brilliant military strategist.
  • Advocated the policy of northward expansion, famously stating, "Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree, and the branches will fall off themselves."
  • Expanded Maratha territories into Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand, and parts of Rajputana.
  • Defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad multiple times (e.g., Battle of Palkhed, 1728).
  • His military campaigns were swift and decisive, greatly enhancing Maratha prestige.
• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740-1761):
  • Under his rule, the Maratha Empire reached its territorial zenith, stretching from Punjab in the north to Mysore in the south.
  • Annexed Odisha from Alivardi Khan of Bengal.
  • Introduced administrative reforms and established a more centralized system of governance.
  • However, his expansionist policies, particularly into Punjab, brought the Marathas into direct conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali, leading to the Third Battle of Panipat.

Maratha Confederacy

As the Maratha Empire expanded, it became increasingly difficult for the Peshwa to directly administer all conquered territories from Pune. This led to a decentralization of power and the emergence of semi-autonomous Maratha chiefs, forming a confederacy.

Characteristics of the Maratha Confederacy:

• Loose Alliance: It was not a tightly knit empire but a loose confederation of powerful Maratha families, each controlling their own regions.
• Prominent Chiefs (Sardars):
  • Gaekwad of Baroda: Controlled Gujarat.
  • Bhonsle of Nagpur: Held sway over Nagpur, Berar, and Odisha.
  • Holkar of Indore: Established power in Malwa.
  • Scindia of Gwalior: Controlled Ujjain and later Gwalior, expanding into Rajputana and Delhi.
  • Peshwa of Poona (Pune): Remained the nominal head and de facto ruler, controlling Maharashtra and paramount authority over the others.
• Shared Loyalty (Nominal): While these chiefs recognized the Peshwa's authority, they often pursued independent foreign policies and military campaigns.
• Revenue Sharing: The system of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi collection was often delegated to these chiefs, with a portion sent to the Peshwa.
• Internal Conflicts: Rivalries and jealousies among these Maratha chiefs were common, especially after the Third Battle of Panipat, weakening the confederacy.

Key Observation: The Maratha Confederacy represented a significant shift from the centralized monarchy of Shivaji to a decentralized system of powerful regional chiefs under the nominal leadership of the Peshwa. This structure facilitated rapid expansion but also contained seeds of future disunity.

Administration under the Peshwas

The administrative system under the Peshwas, particularly during the rule of Balaji Baji Rao, was relatively well-organized and efficient, though it gradually became decentralized with the rise of the Confederacy. It largely adopted existing Mughal practices but adapted them to Maratha needs.

Central Administration (Huzur Daftar in Pune)

• Peshwa: The supreme administrative and military authority, acting as the Prime Minister and de facto ruler. All major decisions flowed from him.
• Mantri Parishad (Council of Ministers): Though the Peshwa's power grew absolute, there was a council. Key ministers included:
  • Diwan (Revenue and Finance Minister): Oversaw financial matters.
  • Fadnis (Chief Accountant/Record Keeper): Maintained state accounts and records.
  • Potnis (Treasurer): Managed the state treasury.
  • Daftardars (Secretaries): Handled various state documents.
• Departments: Administration was divided into various departments dealing with revenue, military, justice, intelligence, and foreign affairs.

Provincial and Local Administration

• Sardars/Jagirdars: Powerful Maratha chiefs (like Holkar, Scindia, Gaekwad, Bhonsle) were granted large territories as jagirs (hereditary assignments) in exchange for military service and revenue collection. They maintained their own armies and civil administrations.
• Subahdars/Mamlatdars: In directly administered areas, officers called Mamlatdars (revenue officers) and Kamavisdars (general administrators) were responsible for law and order, revenue collection, and justice at the district level.
• Village Level: The traditional village autonomy persisted, with Patils (village headmen) and Kulkarnis (village accountants) handling local administration, revenue, and justice.

Revenue Administration

Revenue was the backbone of Peshwa administration, funding their vast military and expansionist policies.

• Land Revenue: The primary source. Assessment was based on the actual produce (often 1/3^rd to 1/2^th of the produce). Measurement and survey systems were used to ensure fair assessment.
• Chauth:

  Definition: A levy of 1/4^th (Chauth) of the land revenue demanded by the Marathas from territories not directly under their administration, in return for protection from Maratha raids.

  • It was a form of protection money, making the Marathas both protectors and potential threats.
  • Contributed significantly to the Maratha treasury.
• Sardeshmukhi:

  Definition: An additional levy of 1/10^th (10%) of the land revenue, claimed by the Marathas as hereditary overlords (Sardeshmukh) of the Deccan.

  • Claimed on the premise of being the chief headman of all the deshmukhs (district headmen).
• Other Sources: Customs duties, transit duties, professional taxes, house tax, and judicial fines.

Military Administration

• Army Organization: Comprised of cavalry, infantry, and artillery. The cavalry remained the most important arm, known for its swiftness and guerrilla tactics.
• European Influence: Later Peshwas, especially Mahadji Scindia, incorporated European-style trained infantry and artillery units, recognizing their effectiveness against foreign powers.
• Forts: Maintained a network of strong hill forts for defense and storage.
• Navy: Though not as prominent, a small navy was maintained to guard the Konkan coast.

Justice System

• Informal and Decentralized: Justice was largely administered by local bodies (panchayats) at the village level.
• Peshwa's Court: The Peshwa himself acted as the highest court of appeal.
• Qazis and Brahmins: Muslim law was administered by Qazis for Muslims, and Hindu law (based on Shastras) by Brahmin judges (Nyayadish) for Hindus.

Social and Economic Conditions

• The administration generally promoted trade and agriculture, though constant warfare and Chauth collection could be disruptive.
• Society was largely hierarchical, with Brahmins (Peshwas belonged to this caste) holding significant influence.
• Religious tolerance was generally practiced.

Important Note: The Peshwa administration, while efficient in many respects, struggled with the challenges of managing a rapidly expanding empire through a decentralized confederacy, especially concerning revenue collection and maintaining unity among diverse chiefs.

3^rd Battle of Panipat: Causes and its Significance

The Third Battle of Panipat, fought on January 14, 1761, was a pivotal event in 18^th-century Indian history. It pitted the Maratha Empire against the invading forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the founder of the Durrani Empire in Afghanistan, and his Indian allies. The battle had profound and long-lasting consequences for the political landscape of India.

Causes of the Battle

1. Maratha Expansion into Punjab: Under Balaji Baji Rao, the Marathas had expanded their influence into Punjab, driving out Abdali's governor and establishing their own control. This directly challenged Abdali's authority and ambitions in India.
2. Afghan Ambition: Ahmad Shah Abdali, a successor to Nadir Shah, aimed to reassert Afghan control over Punjab and exploit the wealth of India. He viewed the Marathas as the primary obstacle to his objectives.
3. Conflict over Revenue and Territory: Both Marathas and Afghans claimed rights over the rich provinces of Punjab and Delhi, leading to inevitable conflict.
4. Mughal Weakness: The Mughal Empire was too weak to resist either the Marathas or the Afghans effectively, creating a power vacuum that both tried to fill.
5. Lack of Allies for Marathas:
   • Rajputs and Jats: Alienated by earlier Maratha raids and demands for Chauth, they largely remained neutral or even hostile towards the Marathas.
   • Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula: Despite Maratha efforts, he chose to side with Abdali, influenced by Najib-ud-Daula and religious considerations.
   • Rohillas: Led by Najib-ud-Daula, the Rohilla Afghans in the Doab region were natural allies of Abdali against the Marathas.
6. Maratha Overconfidence and Tactical Errors:
   • Underestimation of Abdali's military strength and leadership.
   • Taking their entire family and a large number of non-combatants to the battlefield, hindering mobility and logistics.
   • Cutting off supply lines by establishing a fixed camp, leading to starvation and disease before the battle.
   • Failure to adopt guerrilla tactics, instead opting for a pitched battle against a strong artillery-backed force.
7. Religious Dimension: Abdali successfully rallied several Muslim rulers (like Shuja-ud-Daula and Najib-ud-Daula) under the banner of a holy war against the Hindu Marathas, despite his primary motivations being political and economic.

The Battle (Key Aspects)

• Commanders:
  • Marathas: Sadashiv Rao Bhau (Commander-in-Chief), Vishwas Rao (Peshwa's son, nominal head).
  • Afghan-Rohilla-Awadh Alliance: Ahmad Shah Abdali, Najib-ud-Daula, Shuja-ud-Daula.
• Location: Panipat, a strategic plain north of Delhi, which had witnessed two previous decisive battles.
• Date: January 14, 1761.
• Course: The Marathas, weakened by starvation and disease, fought bravely but were ultimately outmanoeuvred and outflanked. The superior artillery and cavalry of Abdali, combined with the discipline of his forces and the defection of some Maratha allies during the battle, led to a catastrophic defeat for the Marathas.

Significance of the Third Battle of Panipat

1. Catastrophic Maratha Losses:
   • Massive loss of life, including Sadashiv Rao Bhau, Vishwas Rao, and many other prominent Maratha generals and soldiers. Estimates range from 40,000 to 70,000 Maratha soldiers killed.
   • It was a severe blow to Maratha prestige and leadership.
   • The news devastated Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao, who died shortly after hearing of the defeat.
2. Temporary Halt to Maratha Expansion: The defeat severely checked Maratha ambitions and their northward expansion for over a decade. It broke the myth of Maratha invincibility.
3. Decentralization of Maratha Power: The leadership vacuum and losses intensified the autonomy of the Maratha confederate chiefs (Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle), leading to increased factionalism and internal struggles. The dream of a unified Maratha Empire under the Peshwa was shattered.
4. No Lasting Gain for Abdali: Despite a decisive victory, Abdali's empire was also stretched thin. He could not consolidate his gains in India permanently due to internal issues in Afghanistan and the heavy cost of the campaign. He returned to Afghanistan, leaving a power vacuum.
5. Paved the Way for British Ascendancy: The battle created a power vacuum in northern India. With the Mughals already weak and the Marathas severely crippled, there was no strong indigenous power left to effectively challenge the rising influence of the British East India Company. This allowed the British to consolidate their position in Bengal and gradually expand their control over India.
6. Psychological Impact: It left a deep psychological scar on the Marathas, changing their military and political outlook.

Conclusion: While the Third Battle of Panipat did not destroy the Maratha power completely, it certainly delivered a severe blow from which they struggled to recover for a considerable period. Its most significant long-term consequence was creating the ideal conditions for the British to emerge as the dominant power in India, as the two most formidable indigenous contenders (Mughals and Marathas) were significantly weakened.