Unit III: Regional Powers and British Expansion

This unit delves into the intricate relationships and conflicts between the expanding British power and prominent Indian regional states, namely the Marathas, Mysore, and the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh. Understanding these interactions is crucial for comprehending the eventual establishment of British paramountcy in India.

Anglo-Maratha Relations

The Maratha Empire, though weakened by the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), remained a formidable power in India. The British, seeking to expand their influence, clashed with the Maratha Confederacy in a series of three major wars.

Overview of Anglo-Maratha Wars

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782)

This war was a complex struggle stemming from the internal power struggles within the Maratha Confederacy and British intervention.

• Causes:
  • Succession dispute among Marathas after the death of Peshwa Madhavrao I. Raghunath Rao, an uncle of the deceased Peshwa, sought the Peshwaship and approached the British for help.
  • The Treaty of Surat (1775) between Raghunath Rao and the British (Bombay government), promising British military aid in return for Salsette and Bassein.
  • The opposition of the powerful Maratha minister, Nana Fadnavis, who supported the infant Madhavrao II as Peshwa.
• Key Events:
  • Initial British successes but later a major defeat at the Convention of Wadgaon (1779), where the British were forced to surrender.
  • Warren Hastings, the Governor-General, repudiated the Convention and sent additional forces.
  • General Goddard captured Ahmedabad and Bassein.
  • Captain Popham captured Gwalior (1780).
• Outcome:
  • The war ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782).
  • Terms of the Treaty:
    • Salsette was retained by the British.
    • Bassein was restored to the Marathas.
    • Raghunath Rao was granted a pension and retired.
    • Madhavrao II was recognized as the legitimate Peshwa.
    • The British agreed not to support Raghunath Rao further.
    • It established a period of 20 years of peace between the British and the Marathas.
• Observation: This war was largely indecisive, but it prevented the Marathas from forming an anti-British coalition and gave the British time to consolidate power elsewhere.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)

The peace established by the Treaty of Salbai was broken due to renewed Maratha internal conflicts and Lord Wellesley's aggressive expansionist policy.

• Causes:
  • Internal feuds among Maratha chiefs (Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, Gaekwad).
  • The humiliating Treaty of Bassein (1802): Peshwa Baji Rao II, defeated by Holkar, signed this subsidiary alliance with the British, effectively surrendering his independence for protection. This outraged other Maratha chiefs.
  • Lord Wellesley's policy of subsidiary alliance and his desire to establish British paramountcy.
• Key Events:
  • The war involved separate campaigns by the British against the Maratha confederates who resisted the Treaty of Bassein.
  • General Arthur Wellesley defeated Scindia at the Battle of Assaye (1803) and Bhonsle at the Battle of Argaon.
  • Lord Lake defeated Holkar's forces at the Battle of Laswari (1803) and captured Delhi and Agra.
• Outcome:
  • The war resulted in decisive British victories.
  • Bhonsle signed the Treaty of Deogaon (1803).
  • Scindia signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (1803).
  • Holkar eventually signed the Treaty of Rajghat (1805).
  • All these treaties involved extensive territorial cessions and acceptance of subsidiary alliances, bringing major Maratha states under British control.
• Observation: The Treaty of Bassein is often considered a fatal blow to Maratha independence, as it allowed the British to directly interfere in Maratha affairs and broke the Maratha unity.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818)

This was the final and decisive conflict that led to the complete subjugation of the Maratha Empire by the British.

• Causes:
  • Lord Hastings' aggressive policy against the Pindaris (irregular armed marauders, often associated with Maratha armies), which was seen by the Marathas as an attack on their sovereignty.
  • The Marathas' desire to shake off the humiliating terms of the subsidiary alliances and restore their independence.
  • The Peshwa Baji Rao II's attempts to organize a confederacy against the British.
• Key Events:
  • The Peshwa, Bhonsle, and Holkar rose in revolt.
  • Key battles included Khirkee, Koregaon, and Ashti, where the Peshwa's forces were decisively defeated.
  • Holkar was defeated at the Battle of Mahidpur.
• Outcome:
  • The Peshwaship was abolished. Baji Rao II was pensioned off and sent to Bithur near Kanpur.
  • Most of the Peshwa's territories were annexed by the British and formed the Bombay Presidency.
  • The smaller Maratha states (like Satara) were allowed to continue as subsidiary states under British paramountcy.
  • The Maratha Confederacy ceased to exist.
  • British supremacy was firmly established in Western India.
• Exam Note: This war marked the end of indigenous challenges to British imperial ambitions in a major way.

Downfall of the Maratha Empire

The Maratha Empire, once a formidable power challenging Mughal authority, eventually succumbed to British power. Several factors contributed to its decline and downfall:

1. Internal Weaknesses and Disunity:
   • Confederacy Structure: The Maratha Empire was a confederacy of powerful chiefs (Peshwa, Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, Gaekwad) who often acted independently and were frequently at odds with each other. This lack of a strong central authority led to constant internal strife.
   • Weak Peshwas: After the death of Madhavrao I (1772), subsequent Peshwas like Narayanrao and Baji Rao II lacked leadership qualities, becoming puppets in the hands of powerful ministers or foreign powers.
   • Succession Disputes: Frequent disputes over succession weakened the empire from within, making it vulnerable to external intervention.
2. Military Shortcomings:
   • Outdated Tactics: While known for guerrilla warfare, their military tactics became outdated when facing the disciplined, modern British army.
   • Reliance on Mercenaries: The Marathas increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries and artillery, which proved unreliable in crucial moments and led to heavy expenditure.
   • Lack of Discipline: Compared to the professional British forces, the Maratha army often lacked discipline and cohesion.
3. Economic Weaknesses:
   • Predatory Nature: The Maratha economy relied heavily on raids and 'Chauth' and 'Sardeshmukhi' (revenue collection from conquered territories), which hindered long-term economic development and alienated conquered populations.
   • Inefficient Administration: Revenue administration was often inefficient and exploitative, leading to economic strain.
   • Lack of Trade and Industry: Unlike the British, the Marathas did not significantly develop trade or industry, which could have provided a stable financial base.
4. Ineffective Leadership:
   • After capable leaders like Shivaji, Baji Rao I, and Madhavrao I, there was a dearth of visionary and unifying leadership. Figures like Nana Fadnavis and Mahadji Scindia were strong, but their efforts were often undermined by others.
5. Superior British Strategy and Diplomacy:
   • Divide and Rule: The British masterfully exploited the internal divisions among the Maratha chiefs.
   • Subsidiary Alliance System: Lord Wellesley's subsidiary alliance system effectively neutralized the Maratha states one by one, bringing them under British political and military control.
   • Modern Military and Resources: The British had a well-trained, disciplined army, superior artillery, and strong financial backing, enabling them to sustain prolonged warfare.
6. Treaty of Bassein (1802): This treaty, signed by Peshwa Baji Rao II, was a crucial turning point, effectively making the Peshwa a British puppet and initiating the final phase of Maratha subjugation.

Definition: Subsidiary Alliance System

A policy introduced by Lord Wellesley, where Indian rulers had to accept permanent stationing of a British force within their territory and pay for its maintenance. In return, the British would protect them from external enemies and internal revolts. The Indian ruler also had to surrender control of external affairs to the British and dismiss European officers in their service other than British.

Anglo-Mysore Relations

The Kingdom of Mysore, under the dynamic leadership of Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, emerged as a significant power in South India. Its strategic location and military strength led to four major conflicts with the British.

Overview of Anglo-Mysore Wars

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769)

• Causes:
  • The rise of Hyder Ali, who modernized Mysore's army and expanded its territory, alarmed the British, Marathas, and the Nizam of Hyderabad.
  • British involvement in the Carnatic politics and their commercial interests.
  • Formation of a triple alliance against Hyder Ali by the British, Marathas, and Nizam.
• Key Events:
  • Hyder Ali skillfully broke the triple alliance, turning the Nizam to his side.
  • Hyder Ali launched a surprise attack and reached the gates of Madras, forcing the British to negotiate.
• Outcome:
  • The war ended with the Treaty of Madras (1769).
  • Terms of the Treaty:
    • Mutual restitution of conquests (except for a few territories).
    • Both parties agreed to assist each other in case of an attack by a third power.
• Observation: This was a victory for Hyder Ali and a blow to British prestige, demonstrating the strength of an Indian ruler against the Company.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)

• Causes:
  • The British failed to honor the Treaty of Madras when Mysore was attacked by the Marathas in 1771.
  • The British captured the French port of Mahe on the Malabar coast, which was under Hyder Ali's protection and crucial for his French supplies.
  • The ongoing American War of Independence and Anglo-French rivalry in India.
• Key Events:
  • Hyder Ali formed an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam against the British.
  • Hyder Ali inflicted a severe defeat on the British forces under Colonel Baillie.
  • Warren Hastings sent Sir Eyre Coote, who defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo.
  • Hyder Ali died in 1782 and was succeeded by his son, Tipu Sultan, who continued the war.
• Outcome:
  • The war ended inconclusively with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784).
  • Terms of the Treaty:
    • Mutual restitution of conquests and prisoners.
    • Both sides agreed to restore the status quo ante bellum.
• Observation: This war, though indecisive, showed Tipu Sultan's military capabilities and the high cost of fighting Mysore for the British.

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)

• Causes:
  • Tipu Sultan's attack on Travancore, a British ally, which he saw as an encroachment on his vassal state of Cochin.
  • Lord Cornwallis, the British Governor-General, formed a triple alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam against Tipu.
  • Tipu's independent foreign policy and attempts to seek French help.
• Key Events:
  • Lord Cornwallis himself led the British forces.
  • The British besieged Tipu's capital, Srirangapatnam.
• Outcome:
  • The war ended with the humiliating Treaty of Srirangapatnam (1792) for Tipu.
  • Terms of the Treaty:
    • Tipu Sultan was forced to cede half of his territories to the British and their allies.
    • He had to pay a massive war indemnity of 3.3 crore rupees.
    • Two of Tipu's sons were taken as hostages by the British until the war indemnity was paid.
• Observation: This treaty significantly weakened Tipu's power and consolidated British dominance in South India.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

• Causes:
  • Lord Wellesley, the new Governor-General, adopted an aggressive policy to completely neutralize Tipu Sultan and establish British paramountcy.
  • Tipu Sultan's continued refusal to accept the subsidiary alliance system.
  • Tipu's attempts to forge alliances with foreign powers like France, Afghanistan, and Arabia, seen by Wellesley as a direct threat.
• Key Events:
  • The British launched a swift and decisive attack.
  • The capital, Srirangapatnam, was besieged and captured.
  • Tipu Sultan died defending his capital on May 4, 1799.
• Outcome:
  • The Kingdom of Mysore was annexed by the British.
  • A small part of Mysore was given to the old Wodeyar dynasty (Hindu rulers before Hyder Ali) who accepted a subsidiary alliance with the British.
  • Major portions were divided between the British and the Nizam.
  • With Tipu's death, the main formidable opposition to British expansion in South India was removed.
• Exam Note: Tipu Sultan is remembered as a pioneering ruler who introduced administrative, military, and economic reforms, and resisted British imperialism fiercely until his death.

Rise of the Punjab under Ranjit Singh: conquests and administration

The early 19th century saw the emergence of a powerful Sikh kingdom in Punjab under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He transformed a collection of warring 'Misls' (confederacies) into a formidable empire.

Background: Rise of Sikh Misls

After the decline of the Mughal Empire and the repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, Punjab was fragmented into twelve independent Sikh principalities called Misls. Each Misl had its own chief and territory. Ranjit Singh belonged to the Sukerchakia Misl.

Conquests of Ranjit Singh

Ranjit Singh, through his military prowess and diplomatic skill, unified the Misls and expanded his empire significantly.

1. Lahore (1799): He captured Lahore, the traditional capital of Punjab, from the Bhangi Misl. This was a crucial step, and he made it his capital.
2. Amritsar (1805): He captured Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs, consolidating his religious authority. He also acquired the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond from Shah Shuja of Afghanistan.
3. Treaty of Amritsar (1809): Signed with the British, this treaty fixed the River Sutlej as the boundary between Ranjit Singh's territories and the British possessions. This allowed him to consolidate his power north of the Sutlej.
4. Kangra (1809): Captured the hill states of Kangra.
5. Attock (1813): Captured from the Afghans, securing a crucial fort.
6. Multan (1818): Annexed the wealthy province of Multan.
7. Kashmir (1819): Conquered Kashmir from the Afghans.
8. Peshawar (1834): Captured Peshawar, effectively pushing the Sikh Empire's boundary to the Khyber Pass and making it a powerful force against the Afghans.

Key Fact: Treaty of Amritsar (1809)

This treaty was significant as it halted Ranjit Singh's expansion south of the Sutlej, preventing a direct clash with the British for some time, and allowing him to focus on consolidating his empire in the north-west.

Administration under Ranjit Singh

Maharaja Ranjit Singh was known not only for his conquests but also for establishing a stable and efficient administration, blending traditional Indian practices with modern reforms.

Central Administration:

• Supreme Authority: Ranjit Singh was the supreme head of the civil, military, and judicial administration. He styled himself as Sarkar-i-Khalsa (Government of the Khalsa) rather than an absolute monarch.
• Council of Ministers: He had a council of ministers and advisors, though his personal authority remained paramount. Key officials included:
  • Diwan Dina Nath: Finance Minister, known for his administrative acumen.
  • Hari Singh Nalwa: A legendary general, known for his military exploits, especially on the Afghan frontier.
• Dafatars (Departments): His administration was organized into several departments:
  • Daftar-i-Abwab-ul-Mal: Department of income and finance.
  • Daftar-i-Taujihat: Department dealing with the royal household and military expenditure.
  • Daftar-i-Mawajab: Department of salaries and payments.
  • Daftar-i-Roznamcha: Department of daily expenditure and records.

Provincial and Local Administration:

• Subas (Provinces): The empire was divided into four major provinces (Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, Kashmir), each headed by a Nazim or Governor.
• Parganas (Districts): Subas were further divided into Parganas, managed by Kardars. The Kardar was a crucial functionary, responsible for revenue collection, maintaining law and order, and acting as a magistrate.
• Villages: Villages largely retained their traditional autonomy, governed by local Panchayats.

Military Administration:

• Modernization: Ranjit Singh is famed for modernizing his army. He employed European officers (e.g., Jean-Baptiste Ventura, Jean-Francois Allard, Claude August Court) to train his infantry and artillery.
• Fauj-i-Khas (Special Brigade): This was his elite force, highly disciplined and trained on European lines.
• Components: The army consisted of a strong infantry (known for its discipline), efficient cavalry, and a formidable artillery arm (Topkhana).
• Strength: He built one of the most powerful indigenous armies in India, capable of standing up to the British, earning him the title "Lion of Punjab."

Revenue Administration:

• Land Revenue: The primary source of state income.
• Assessment Methods:
  • Batai: Division of crops.
  • Kankut: Estimation of the standing crop.
  • Zabti: Measurement of land and fixed cash assessment.
• Share: The state's share varied from 1/3 to 1/2 of the produce, collected both in cash and kind.
• Jagirdari System: He continued the system of granting jagirs (land grants) for service, but ensured jagirdars did not become too powerful.

Judicial Administration:

• Informal System: There was no codified law system. Justice was largely based on customary law, personal laws (Sharia for Muslims, Dharma Shastra for Hindus, local customs for Sikhs).
• Hierarchy of Courts:
  • Village Panchayats handled local disputes.
  • Kardars at district level heard criminal and civil cases.
  • The Maharaja's court was the highest court of appeal.
• Punishments: Generally lenient. Capital punishment was rare. Fines and mutilation were common.

Religious Policy:

• Secular Ruler: Despite being a devout Sikh, Ranjit Singh was known for his secular outlook. He respected all religions.
• Promotion of Harmony: His court had prominent Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh ministers and officials. He made grants to gurdwaras, temples, and mosques.
• Title: His rule was often referred to as 'Sarkar-i-Khalsa,' implying governance in the name of the Sikh community but for the welfare of all subjects.

Observation: Ranjit Singh's empire was a strong, centralized state that effectively kept the British at bay during his lifetime. Its decline began shortly after his death in 1839 due to succession disputes and internal power struggles, eventually leading to its annexation by the British after the Anglo-Sikh Wars.