Unit II: Pallavas and Cholas

This unit delves into the history and administration of two prominent South Indian dynasties: the Pallavas and the Cholas. Understanding their political achievements and administrative structures is crucial for comprehending the historical evolution of the region.

Pallavas

The Pallavas were a powerful South Indian dynasty who ruled from the 3rd century to the 9th century CE. Their capital was Kanchipuram. They were patrons of art, architecture, and literature, leaving a significant cultural legacy, particularly in temple architecture.

Political History

Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630 CE)

Mahendravarman I was one of the most distinguished Pallava rulers. His reign marked a period of significant cultural and political developments.

• Titles and Attributes: He assumed various titles such as Chitrakarappuli (tiger among artists), Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Mattavilasa (a pleasure-seeker), and Gunabhara (bearer of virtues).
• Art and Architecture: He was a pioneer of rock-cut architecture in South India, shifting from brick and timber to stone. He initiated the construction of numerous cave temples (mandapas) at places like Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, and Mamandur.
• Literature: Mahendravarman I was also a playwright and composed the famous Sanskrit farcical play, Mattavilasa Prahasana, which satirizes contemporary religious sects.
• Religion: Initially a Jain, he later converted to Saivism under the influence of the Saivite saint Appar (Tirunavukkarasu).
• Conflicts: His reign saw the beginning of prolonged conflicts with the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. Mahendravarman I suffered a defeat against Pulakesin II at Pullalur.

Exam Note: Mahendravarman I's reign is pivotal for the transition to rock-cut architecture and the development of Pallava art.

Narasimhavarman I (c. 630-668 CE)

Narasimhavarman I, son of Mahendravarman I, is regarded as the greatest of the Pallava kings. His reign saw the Pallava empire reach its zenith.

• Titles and Attributes: He held the title Mahamalla (great wrestler or warrior), from which the town of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) derives its name.
• Military Achievements:
  • He famously avenged his father's defeat by Pulakesin II. He defeated Pulakesin II in several battles, including the Battle of Manimangalam and Pariyalam.
  • He invaded the Chalukyan capital of Vatapi (Badami) and conquered it, earning him the title Vatapikonda (conqueror of Vatapi) around 642 CE.
  • He also successfully dealt with the Pandyas and the Cheras.
  • He dispatched two naval expeditions to Sri Lanka and restored the Sinhalese prince Manavarma to his throne.
• Art and Architecture: He continued and expanded his father's architectural legacy. Most of the monolithic rock-cut Rathas (chariots) and the famous Shore Temple at Mamallapuram were built during his time. These are exemplary examples of Dravidian temple architecture.
• Chinese Pilgrim Visit: The famous Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during his reign and provided valuable accounts of the Pallava kingdom.

Key Event: Narasimhavarman I's capture of Vatapi was a major blow to the Chalukyas and solidified Pallava supremacy in the South.

Administrative System (Pallavas)

The Pallava administration was well-organized and efficient, laying foundations for later South Indian states.

1. Central Administration:

• King: The king was the supreme head of the administration, commander-in-chief, and chief justice. The monarchy was hereditary.
• Ministers (Amatyas): The king was assisted by a council of ministers and high officials who oversaw various departments like revenue, justice, and military.
• Royal Secretariat: A well-organized secretariat (Ulvariyam) handled royal orders and records.

2. Provincial and Local Administration:

• Division of the Empire: The empire was divided into several provinces called Rashtras or Mandalam. These were further sub-divided into Vishayas (districts), Nadus (sub-districts), and Grams (villages).
• Village Administration: Villages were the basic unit of administration. They enjoyed a degree of autonomy. Village assemblies played a crucial role:
  • Ur: The general assembly of the local residents.
  • Sabha: The assembly of adult male members in Brahmin villages. It managed temples, tanks, and land.
  • Nagaram: Assemblies of merchants in towns.

3. Revenue Administration:

• Land Tax: Land revenue (Kadamai) was the primary source of income, generally one-sixth of the produce.
• Other Taxes: Taxes on professions, tools, customs, and tolls were also collected.
• Irrigation: Significant attention was paid to irrigation. The king undertook projects like the Mamandur tank, and local assemblies maintained local irrigation works (Eri-Variyam).

4. Justice System:

• The king was the highest court of appeal.
• Justice was administered through royal courts and village assemblies.
• Minor disputes were handled by village courts.

5. Military Administration:

• The Pallavas maintained a strong and well-organized army consisting of infantry, cavalry, elephants, and a navy.
• The navy was crucial for their overseas trade and occasional expeditions to Sri Lanka.

Cholas

The Cholas, emerging as a dominant power after the decline of the Pallavas, built one of the most enduring and influential empires in South Indian history, flourishing from the 9th to the 13th centuries CE. Their empire was known for its robust administration, powerful navy, and unparalleled architectural achievements.

Political History

Rajaraja the Great (c. 985-1014 CE)

Rajaraja I, often hailed as Rajaraja the Great, laid the foundation for the mighty Chola Empire. His reign was marked by extensive conquests, administrative reforms, and magnificent artistic patronage.

• Consolidation and Expansion:
  • He conquered the Cheras and Pandyas, extending Chola influence over most of South India.
  • He defeated the Western Chalukyas in several battles.
  • His major achievement was the conquest of Sri Lanka (Ceylon), bringing the northern part of the island under Chola rule.
  • He also conquered the Maldives, establishing Chola naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean.
• Titles: He assumed titles like Mummudi Chola (the Chola who wore three crowns - Chera, Chola, Pandya) and Jayangonda (the victorious).
• Administrative Reforms: He undertook a massive land survey and assessment (Ul alavu) to standardize land revenue, ensuring a more efficient and equitable tax collection system.
• Art and Architecture: His greatest architectural contribution is the magnificent Brihadeeswarar Temple (also known as Rajarajeswaram) at Thanjavur (Tanjore), dedicated to Lord Shiva. This temple is a masterpiece of Dravidian architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Navy: Rajaraja I built a powerful navy which was instrumental in his overseas conquests, particularly against Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

Important: The Brihadeeswarar Temple is a testament to Rajaraja I's vision and the architectural prowess of the Cholas.

Rajendra Chola I (c. 1014-1044 CE)

Rajendra I, son and successor of Rajaraja I, inherited a vast empire and further expanded its boundaries, making the Chola dynasty a dominant power across Southeast Asia.

• Succession and Titles: He was co-regent with his father for some years before assuming full power. He adopted the title Gangaikondachola (the Chola who conquered the Ganga) after his northern campaign.
• Military Campaigns:
  • Northern Expedition (c. 1022 CE): He led a remarkable expedition to the Gangetic plains, defeating the Palas of Bengal and the Somavamshis of Odisha. To commemorate this victory, he founded a new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram.
  • Naval Expedition to Southeast Asia (c. 1025 CE): His most famous achievement was the naval campaign against the Srivijaya Empire (modern-day Indonesia and Malaysia), which controlled key maritime trade routes. This expedition led to the conquest of Kadaram (Kedah), Sumatra, and other islands, establishing Chola supremacy in Southeast Asian trade.
  • He continued his father's policies against the Western Chalukyas and Pandyas, further consolidating Chola power.
• Art and Architecture: He built the grand temple of Gangaikondacholapuram, which mimicked the Brihadeeswarar Temple and housed a large tank called Cholagangam, filled with water from the Ganges.
• Cultural Influence: His expeditions led to significant cultural exchanges between South India and Southeast Asia, influencing art, architecture, and religion in the region.

Global Impact: Rajendra Chola I's naval expeditions were an unprecedented feat for an Indian kingdom, demonstrating formidable maritime power.

Administrative System (Cholas)

The Chola administration was highly centralized and well-organized, characterized by a sophisticated system of local self-governance. The Uttaramerur inscriptions provide detailed insights into their village administration.

1. Central Administration:

• King: The king was at the apex of the administration, assisted by a highly efficient bureaucracy. The monarchy was hereditary, often with a period of co-regency.
• Council of Ministers (Udanakuttam): A powerful group of ministers and officials advised the king. The bureaucracy was extensive, with officials responsible for various departments.
• Royal Secretariat (Olai): Maintained records and issued royal orders.

2. Provincial and Local Administration:

• Empire Division: The empire was divided into Mandalam (provinces), usually under royal princes or trusted officers.
• Further Divisions: Mandalam were sub-divided into Valanadu (districts), which comprised several Nadus (group of villages). Nadus were further divided into Kurram (groups of villages) and individual Urs (villages).
• Local Self-Governance: This was the most distinctive feature of the Chola administration. Villages enjoyed remarkable autonomy through local assemblies:
  • Ur: The general assembly of the residents of non-Brahmin villages, primarily dealing with local affairs, land, and water.
  • Sabha (or Mahasabha): Found in Brahmadeya villages (lands granted to Brahmins). These were highly sophisticated assemblies with executive committees (Variyam) chosen by elaborate election procedures (Kudavolai system, as detailed in Uttaramerur inscriptions).
  • Nagaram: Assemblies of merchants and traders in urban centers.
• Committees (Variyams): The Sabha had specialized committees (Variyams) for different functions, such as:
  • Samvatsara Variyam: Annual committee.
  • Eri Variyam: Tank or irrigation committee.
  • Totta Variyam: Garden committee.
  • Pon Variyam: Gold committee (treasury).

3. Revenue Administration:

• Land Tax (Kadamai): The primary source of revenue, typically one-third of the produce, collected in cash or kind. Rajaraja I's land surveys ensured efficient collection.
• Other Taxes: Taxes on trade, professions, forests, mines, and salt pans.
• Irrigation: Extensive irrigation works (canals, tanks) were maintained by the state and local bodies, crucial for agricultural prosperity.

4. Justice System:

• The king was the supreme dispenser of justice.
• Village assemblies handled minor civil and criminal cases.
• Higher courts existed for more serious offenses, with harsh punishments, including fines and physical mutilation for severe crimes.

5. Military Administration:

• The Cholas maintained a massive and well-disciplined army with infantry, cavalry, and elephants.
• Their navy was exceptionally powerful and crucial for their overseas expansion and control of maritime trade. Cantonments (Kadagams) housed military units.