Unit III: The Pala and Sena Dynasties

This unit delves into the significant historical period marked by the rise and fall of the Pala and Sena dynasties in Bengal and parts of Eastern India. We will explore the political prowess of prominent Pala rulers like Dharmapala and Devapala, understand the rich cultural tapestry woven by the Palas through their patronage of Buddhism, art, and education, and examine the contributions and eventual decline of the Sena dynasty under rulers like Ballal Sen and Lakshman Sen.

Political Achievements of Dharmapala & Devapala

The Pala Empire, founded by Gopala, became a dominant power in Eastern India. His successors, Dharmapala and Devapala, further consolidated and expanded the empire, marking an era of political stability and military prowess.

Dharmapala (c. 770 – 810 CE)

Dharmapala was the second ruler of the Pala dynasty, succeeding his father Gopala. He is considered one of the most distinguished rulers of early medieval India for his extensive political and military achievements, which significantly expanded the Pala Empire.

• Expansion of Empire: Dharmapala successfully extended the Pala dominion beyond Bengal and Bihar, incorporating parts of Orissa and Assam. His influence was felt over a vast region, making the Palas a formidable regional power.
• Involvement in Tripartite Struggle: He was a key player in the "Tripartite Struggle" for control over Kannauj, the imperial capital of Northern India, involving the Palas, the Gurjara-Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas. Despite facing defeats against the Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, he managed to assert Pala authority over Kannauj at various times.
• Control over Kannauj: Dharmapala temporarily gained control of Kannauj and placed a nominee, Chakrayudha, on the throne. This demonstrated his ambition and ability to project power far beyond his core territories.
• Strategic Religious Patronage: While primarily a political achievement, his extensive patronage of Buddhist institutions also served strategic political purposes. He founded the famous Vikramashila Mahavihara and significantly contributed to the revival and maintenance of Nalanda University. These institutions not only promoted learning but also served as centers of cultural and political influence.
• Strong Administration: He established a robust administrative structure that ensured stability and efficient governance across his vast empire.

Exam Note: Dharmapala's reign is crucial for understanding the initial phase of Pala dominance and their involvement in the power struggles of North India. His patronage of Buddhist universities highlights the blend of political strategy and cultural development during his rule.

Devapala (c. 810 – 850 CE)

Devapala, son and successor of Dharmapala, is widely regarded as the most powerful ruler of the Pala dynasty. Under his leadership, the Pala Empire reached its zenith, extending its influence across a vast geographical area.

• Further Imperial Expansion: Devapala continued and surpassed his father's expansionist policies. His inscriptions claim victories over the rulers of Pragjyotisha (Assam), Utkala (Orissa), Kalinga (parts of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh), and even extended his sway towards parts of Punjab and Gandhara (present-day Afghanistan/Pakistan border regions).
• Domination in Tripartite Struggle: He maintained Pala supremacy in the Tripartite Struggle. He inflicted defeats upon the Gurjara-Pratihara king Mihira Bhoja (in the early phase of his reign) and also engaged successfully against the Rashtrakutas. This secured the Pala's position as a dominant force in Northern India.
• Strong Military and Naval Power: Devapala commanded a powerful army and also possessed a strong navy, which enabled him to project power across rivers and coastal areas.
• Diplomatic Relations: He maintained friendly diplomatic relations with the king of Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra and Java), Balaputradeva, a testament to the Pala's international standing. He granted five villages for the maintenance of a monastery built by Balaputradeva at Nalanda.
• Pala Zenith: The Pala Empire truly reached its pinnacle of power and territorial extent under Devapala. This period saw unparalleled political stability and economic prosperity.

Important Observation: Devapala's reign represents the peak of Pala power. His military successes and diplomatic engagements solidified the Pala Empire's position as a major force in the subcontinent.

Cultural Contribution of the Palas

The Pala period is renowned as a golden age for cultural development, particularly in Eastern India. The Palas were great patrons of religion, art, architecture, and education, leaving a lasting legacy.

Buddhism (Mahayana & Vajrayana)

The Palas were devout followers and fervent patrons of Buddhism, especially the Mahayana and later Vajrayana forms. Their reign saw a resurgence of Buddhist intellectual and artistic activity.

• Patronage of Learning Centers: The Palas generously supported and expanded renowned Buddhist monastic universities (Mahaviharas), which became international centers of learning.
  • Nalanda: Continuously flourished under Pala patronage, attracting scholars from across Asia.
  • Vikramashila: Founded by Dharmapala, it became a leading center for Tantric Buddhism.
  • Odantapuri: Another significant monastery and center of learning.
  • Somapura Mahavihara (Paharpur): A massive monastic complex, built by Dharmapala, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site, showcasing unique architecture.
• Role of Pala Scholars: Eminent Buddhist scholars like Atisha Dipankara Srijnana (from Vikramashila) played a crucial role in the spread of Buddhism to Tibet, significantly influencing Tibetan Buddhism.
• Spread of Buddhism: Due to Pala patronage, Bengal became a vital transmission point for Buddhist ideas and art to Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Southeast Asian countries.

Key Concept: The Pala period is often regarded as the last major phase of Buddhist flourishing in India before its decline due to various factors, including the arrival of Islamic invaders.

Art and Architecture

Pala art and architecture developed a distinctive style, characterized by its elegance, refinement, and religious symbolism. This style had a profound influence on the art of Nepal, Tibet, and Southeast Asia.

• Sculpture:
  • Bronze Sculptures: The Palas were masters of bronze casting, particularly using the lost-wax technique (cire perdue). These sculptures often depicted Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and Hindu deities (e.g., Vishnu, Surya). The style is known for its slender, elegant figures with serene expressions.
  • Stone Sculptures: Predominantly carved from black basalt, Pala stone sculptures also exhibit the same characteristic grace and detailed ornamentation.
  • Distinctive Style: Pala sculpture is identifiable by its characteristic smooth, flowing lines, rounded forms, and often a melancholic expression.
• Paintings:
  • Manuscript Illumination: Palas patronized miniature painting, primarily on palm-leaf manuscripts, illustrating Buddhist texts (e.g., Prajnaparamita). These paintings are vibrant, detailed, and show a strong influence of Ajanta style.
  • Mural Paintings: While few have survived, evidence suggests large-scale mural paintings adorned monastic walls, such as those found at Somapura.
• Architecture:
  • Monastic Complexes: The grandest architectural achievements were the elaborate brick-built monastic complexes (Viharas), exemplified by Somapura Mahavihara, with its central cruciform stupa and hundreds of monastic cells.
  • Stupas and Temples: Although most were Buddhist, Hindu temples were also constructed. The architecture often featured terraced structures, intricate brickwork, and distinct curvilinear spires (shikhara).
  • Materials: Primarily brick and stone, reflecting local availability and a distinct regional style.

Exam Tip: When discussing Pala art, mention the distinctive "Pala style" characterized by elegant forms, serene expressions, and the prolific use of bronze casting.

Literature and Education

The Palas fostered a vibrant intellectual environment, supporting scholars in various fields beyond religious studies.

• Patronage of Sanskrit Scholars: While Buddhism was dominant, the Palas also patronized Sanskrit scholars, and Hindu philosophical and literary works continued to be produced.
• Development of Proto-Bengali Script: The script used in Pala inscriptions and manuscripts evolved into the Proto-Bengali script, which is the direct ancestor of modern Bengali and Assamese scripts.
• Universities as Centers of Learning: The great Mahaviharas were not just religious institutions but comprehensive universities. They taught a wide range of subjects including:
  • Buddhist philosophy and logic (Hetu Vidya)
  • Grammar (Vyakarana)
  • Medicine (Ayurveda)
  • Astronomy
  • Tantrism
  • Arts and crafts

Impact and Legacy

• The Pala period ensured the continuation and flourishing of arts and education in Eastern India, even amidst political turmoil in other parts of the subcontinent.
• Their cultural expressions, particularly in sculpture and painting, profoundly influenced neighboring regions, leading to the development of related artistic traditions in Southeast Asia and the Himalayan region.
• The legacy of the great universities under Pala patronage ensured that India remained a beacon of knowledge for centuries.

Sena Dynasty – Ballal Sen & Lakshman Sen

Following the decline of the Pala Empire, primarily due to internal weaknesses and external pressures, the Sena dynasty emerged as the new dominant power in Bengal. The Senas were staunch Hindus who ushered in a period of Brahminical revival.

Introduction to Sena Dynasty

• Origin: The Senas were originally Brahmins from Karnataka (southern India) who migrated to Bengal.
• Establishment of Power: They gradually established their authority during the later Pala period, eventually supplanting the Palas in the 11th and 12th centuries.
• Religious Shift: Unlike the Buddhist Palas, the Senas were ardent Hindus, particularly Shaivites and Vaishnavites. Their rule marked a shift from Buddhist patronage to a strong revival of Brahminical Hinduism and the caste system in Bengal.

Ballal Sen (c. 1160 – 1178 CE)

Ballal Sen was a prominent ruler of the Sena dynasty, known for his military achievements, literary contributions, and significant social reforms.

• Consolidation of Sena Power: He succeeded his father, Vijaya Sen, and played a crucial role in consolidating and expanding the Sena empire across a larger part of Bengal and parts of Bihar and Orissa.
• Literary Contributions:
  • He was an accomplished scholar and author. His most notable works are:
    • Danasagara: A comprehensive treatise on various types of charity (dana).
    • Adbhutasagara: A work on astronomy, omens, and prodigies. He initiated this work, but it was completed by his son, Lakshman Sen.
• Social Reforms (Kulinism):

  Ballal Sen is historically significant for introducing the system of Kulinism (Kaulinya) among the Brahmins, Kayasthas, and Vaidyas of Bengal. This was a social stratification system aimed at preserving the purity of lineage and improving the quality of these communities.

  • Purpose: To categorize families based on their purity of birth, conduct, learning, and marital alliances.
  • Impact: It created a rigid social hierarchy, promoting hypergamy (marrying upwards) and sometimes leading to multiple marriages among Kulin men to maintain their status. While initially intended to bring order, it later contributed to social problems and rigidity.

Important Point: Kulinism, introduced by Ballal Sen, had a profound and lasting impact on the social structure of Bengal, particularly within the Brahmin, Kayastha, and Vaidya communities.

Lakshman Sen (c. 1178 – 1206 CE)

Lakshman Sen was the last significant Hindu ruler of Bengal before the advent of Muslim rule. His reign saw both the culmination of Sena cultural glory and the tragic decline of the dynasty.

• Political Achievements:
  • He initially maintained and even extended the Sena empire, reportedly achieving military successes in Puri (Orissa), Kalinga, Benares, and Bihar.
  • His empire stretched from present-day Assam to Puri in Orissa and parts of Bihar.
• Cultural Patronage:
  • Lakshman Sen was a great patron of literature and arts, and his court was renowned for its assembly of celebrated scholars and poets, often referred to as the "Pancha Ratnas" (Five Jewels).
    • Jayadeva: Author of the famous lyrical drama Gita Govinda, which describes the divine love of Krishna and Radha.
    • Dhoyi: Author of Pavanadutam (The Wind Messenger).
    • Govardhanacharya, Sarana, and Umapatidhar: Other prominent poets and scholars.
  • He completed his father's unfinished work, Adbhutasagara.
• Invasion by Bakhtiyar Khalji (1202/1203 CE):

  The most significant event of Lakshman Sen's reign was the lightning invasion of Bengal by the Turkic general Ikhtiyar al-Din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji.

  • Nadia Incident: In a daring raid, Bakhtiyar Khalji, with a small cavalry force, attacked the Sena capital, Nadia (or Nabadwip), catching Lakshman Sen by surprise.
  • Fall of Capital: Lakshman Sen, reportedly elderly and unprepared, fled from his palace, leading to the swift fall of Nadia. This event marked the beginning of Muslim rule in Bengal.
  • Retreat and Later Rule: Though his capital fell, Lakshman Sen continued to rule in Eastern Bengal for a few more years, but the western and northern parts of his kingdom came under Khalji's control.

Common Mistake: It is often incorrectly assumed that Lakshman Sen's entire kingdom fell immediately after Nadia. He continued to rule from Eastern Bengal for some time, but the core of his power was broken.