1. Main Provisions of Vienna Congress (1815)
The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. Its primary objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goals were to resize the main powers to balance each other and prevent future wars, especially to prevent French expansion.
Key Goal: To establish a new balance of power in Europe and restore the monarchical order after the defeat of Napoleon.
Key Provisions and Principles:
- Restoration Principle (Legitimacy): European monarchies were restored to their thrones, particularly in France (Bourbon dynasty under Louis XVIII), Spain, Portugal, and several Italian states. The aim was to re-establish the pre-1789 order.
- Balance of Power: Major powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France) aimed to prevent any single nation from dominating Europe again. This involved territorial adjustments.
- Territorial Changes:
- France: Lost all territories gained during the Napoleonic era and was confined to its 1792 borders. A substantial indemnity was imposed.
- Prussia: Gained significant territories in the Rhineland, parts of Saxony, and Swedish Pomerania, strengthening its position in Western Europe.
- Austria: Acquired Lombardy and Venetia in Italy, gaining influence over Italian states, and regained Tyrol and Illyrian Provinces.
- Russia: Gained most of Poland (forming the Kingdom of Poland under Russian control) and retained Finland and Bessarabia.
- Netherlands: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created, combining the former Dutch Republic with the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium), to serve as a strong buffer state against France.
- German Confederation: Replaced the Holy Roman Empire, comprising 39 states under the presidency of Austria.
- Switzerland: Its perpetual neutrality was guaranteed.
- Containment of France: The establishment of strong buffer states around France (e.g., United Kingdom of the Netherlands, strengthened Prussia, Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia) to prevent future French aggression.
Important Observation: The Congress of Vienna successfully maintained peace in Europe for nearly a century (until World War I), largely due to the principle of the balance of power and collective security. However, it largely ignored the rising tide of nationalism and liberalism, setting the stage for future conflicts.
2. The Concert of Europe
The Concert of Europe was a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe in the early 19th century, following the Napoleonic Wars. It was an informal arrangement rather than a formal organization, based on regular meetings (congresses) among the great powers to discuss and resolve international problems.
Formation and Principles:
- Formation: Evolved directly from the Quadruple Alliance (1815) between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, which was formed to enforce the peace settlement and prevent a resurgence of French power. France joined in 1818, transforming it into the Quintuple Alliance.
- Key Principles:
- Balance of Power: Upholding the territorial arrangements made at Vienna.
- Collective Security: The idea that an attack on one member state was an attack on all, prompting collective action to maintain stability.
- Intervention: The right and duty of the great powers to intervene in other states' internal affairs to suppress liberal or nationalist revolutions that threatened the established order. This was particularly favored by Metternich.
- Regular Congresses: Meetings were held periodically (e.g., Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle 1818, Troppau 1820, Laibach 1821, Verona 1822) to address emerging crises.
Functioning and Decline:
- Functioning: The Concert successfully managed several international crises, such as the suppression of liberal revolts in Spain and Italy in the 1820s. It ensured relative peace and stability by providing a forum for dialogue and discouraging unilateral actions by major powers.
- Decline: The Concert began to weaken due to growing disagreements among the great powers, particularly over the principle of intervention.
- Causes of Decline:
- British Opposition: Great Britain, with its liberal political system, increasingly opposed the policy of intervention in other states' affairs, especially when it involved suppressing legitimate national aspirations (e.g., Greek War of Independence).
- Rise of Nationalism: The Concert struggled to contain nationalist movements in various parts of Europe (e.g., Belgium's independence in 1830).
- Eastern Question: Divergent interests, particularly between Russia and Britain/France, over the decline of the Ottoman Empire (the Eastern Question) strained relations.
- Revolutions of 1848: The widespread revolutions across Europe in 1848 severely challenged the conservative order that the Concert sought to uphold, ultimately leading to its fragmentation.
3. Causes & Effects of July Revolution (1830)
The July Revolution, also known as the Second French Revolution, led to the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who would rule for 18 years.
Causes:
- Conservative Policies of Charles X: Charles X, who ascended to the throne in 1824, was a strong believer in absolute monarchy and sought to restore the Old Regime principles. His policies were deeply unpopular with the liberal and middle classes.
- Compensation to Émigrés: He compensated aristocrats who had lost their lands during the French Revolution, a move seen as highly unfair by the general population.
- Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies: In 1830, Charles X dissolved the newly elected liberal Chamber of Deputies because it opposed his policies.
- The July Ordinances (Ordinances of Saint-Cloud): On July 26, 1830, Charles X issued four ordinances:
- Suspended the liberty of the press.
- Dissolved the newly elected Chamber of Deputies.
- Reduced the electorate by excluding the commercial middle class.
- Called for new elections under the restricted suffrage.
These ordinances were a direct attack on constitutional liberties and ignited popular outrage.
Effects:
- Overthrow of Charles X: Three days of popular uprising in Paris (the 'Trois Glorieuses' - Three Glorious Days) forced Charles X to abdicate and flee to England.
- Accession of Louis-Philippe: The Chamber of Deputies offered the throne to Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who became the 'Citizen King' (Roi-citoyen). He adopted a more liberal constitution and reigned under the title 'King of the French' instead of 'King of France'.
- Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy: The July Monarchy was a more liberal and bourgeois-friendly constitutional monarchy, expanding suffrage slightly and giving more power to the Chamber of Deputies.
- Limited Liberalism: While more liberal than the Bourbon Restoration, the July Monarchy still favored the wealthy bourgeoisie, leaving the working class and poorer citizens disenfranchised.
- Inspiration for European Revolts: The success of the July Revolution inspired similar liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe in 1830-1831, including:
- Belgian Revolution: Belgium gained independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
- Polish Uprising: A nationalist revolt against Russian rule, which was ultimately crushed.
- Italian Revolts: Uprisings in Parma, Modena, and the Papal States, also suppressed.
- German States: Minor liberal uprisings demanding constitutional reforms.
4. Causes & Effects of February Revolution (1848)
The February Revolution was a brief but intense uprising in France that led to the overthrow of King Louis-Philippe and the establishment of the Second French Republic. It was part of a broader wave of revolutions across Europe known as the Revolutions of 1848 or the 'Spring of Nations'.
Causes:
- Economic Hardship:
- Agricultural Crisis (1846-1847): Poor harvests led to rising food prices, especially for bread, causing widespread hardship among the working class and peasantry.
- Industrial Depression: A concurrent industrial downturn led to high unemployment, wage cuts, and business failures.
- Social Unrest: Widespread poverty and unemployment fueled discontent among the working class (proletariat) who felt ignored by the government.
- Lack of Political Reform and Suffrage: The July Monarchy under Louis-Philippe primarily served the interests of the wealthy bourgeoisie. The electoral system was highly restrictive, with property qualifications limiting suffrage to a very small percentage of the male population. Calls for universal male suffrage were rejected.
- Corruption and Scandals: The government was perceived as corrupt and unresponsive to the needs of ordinary citizens.
- Ban on Political Banquets: Opposition groups used 'banquets' as a way to hold political gatherings and discuss reforms, as public assemblies were banned. The government's decision to ban a large banquet scheduled for February 22, 1848, was the immediate spark for the revolution.
- Unpopularity of Louis-Philippe: The 'Citizen King' had become increasingly conservative and unpopular, seen as a defender of the wealthy elite rather than the common people.
Effects:
- Overthrow of Louis-Philippe: Riots and barricades erupted in Paris, leading to the collapse of the monarchy. Louis-Philippe abdicated on February 24, 1848, and fled to England.
- Establishment of the Second French Republic: A provisional government was formed, dominated by both liberal republicans and socialists.
- Universal Male Suffrage: One of the first acts of the provisional government was to grant universal male suffrage, vastly increasing the electorate.
- Abolition of Slavery: Slavery was abolished in French colonies.
- National Workshops: In response to unemployment, the provisional government established 'National Workshops' (Ateliers Nationaux) to provide jobs for the unemployed. These were controversial and eventually closed, leading to the 'June Days' uprising.
- Rise of Socialist Influence: Socialists like Louis Blanc gained temporary influence in the government, advocating for workers' rights and social reforms.
- Ripple Effect Across Europe (Spring of Nations): The success of the February Revolution immediately inspired a wave of similar revolutions throughout Europe, including:
- German States: Demands for constitutional government and national unification (Frankfurt Parliament).
- Austrian Empire: Uprisings in Vienna (Metternich fled), Hungary, Bohemia, and among Italian subjects (Lombardy-Venetia), challenging Habsburg rule.
- Italian States: Revolutions seeking liberal constitutions and national unification.
These revolutions, though largely suppressed, fundamentally altered the political landscape and challenged the conservative order established by the Congress of Vienna.