Unification of Germany
The unification of Germany in 1871 was a complex process driven by nationalism, military strength, and the political genius of Otto von Bismarck. Before unification, Germany was a collection of independent states, loosely organized under the German Confederation after the Napoleonic Wars.
Key Factors and Early Steps
- Zollverein (Customs Union): Established in 1834, this economic union removed internal customs barriers among member states, fostering economic integration and Prussia's leadership, while excluding Austria.
- Rise of Prussia: Prussia, with its strong military and industrial base, emerged as the leading state within the German Confederation, advocating for a 'Kleindeutschland' (smaller Germany) without Austria.
- Nationalism: A growing sense of shared language, culture, and history fueled the desire for a unified German nation-state.
Otto von Bismarck and 'Blood and Iron'
Otto von Bismarck, appointed as Minister-President of Prussia in 1862, pursued a policy of 'Realpolitik'—practical politics based on power rather than ideals. His famous 'Blood and Iron' speech emphasized the role of military strength in achieving national objectives.
Wars of Unification
Bismarck masterminded three wars that were instrumental in German unification:
Danish War (1864)
- Opponents: Prussia and Austria vs. Denmark.
- Cause: Dispute over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
- Outcome: Denmark was defeated. Schleswig was administered by Prussia, and Holstein by Austria. This created tension between Prussia and Austria, setting the stage for the next conflict.
Austro-Prussian War (1866)
- Opponents: Prussia and its allies vs. Austria and its allies (including several German states).
- Cause: Bismarck provoked Austria over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein.
- Outcome: Prussia decisively defeated Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa).
- Significance:
- Austria was permanently excluded from German affairs.
- The German Confederation was dissolved.
- The North German Confederation was formed under Prussian dominance, incorporating many northern German states.
- Bismarck avoided harsh terms on Austria to prevent future animosity.
- Opponents: Prussia and the North German Confederation (later joined by southern German states) vs. France.
- Cause: Bismarck manipulated a diplomatic dispute (the Ems Dispatch) over the Spanish succession to provoke France into declaring war, thereby rallying southern German states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt) to the Prussian side.
- Outcome: Germany decisively defeated France, capturing Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan. Paris was besieged and eventually surrendered.
- Significance:
- The southern German states joined the North German Confederation, creating the German Empire.
- On January 18, 1871, Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
- France was forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and pay a large indemnity, fostering long-term French resentment.
- Political Fragmentation: Italy was divided into several kingdoms and duchies, including the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Papal States, Lombardy-Venetia (under Austrian rule), and various smaller states.
- Foreign Domination: Austria controlled much of northern Italy, and the Bourbon dynasty ruled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
- Nationalist Movements: Secret societies like the Carbonari and movements led by figures like Mazzini advocated for a united Italy.
- Count Camillo di Cavour ('The Brains'): Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia from 1852. Cavour was a master of diplomacy and realpolitik. He believed in unification under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia and sought foreign alliances to expel Austrian influence.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi ('The Sword'): A charismatic military leader who commanded the 'Red Shirts' (Volunteers). He played a crucial role in conquering southern Italy and then ceding it to King Victor Emmanuel II.
- Giuseppe Mazzini ('The Soul'): A fervent nationalist and republican who founded 'Young Italy' in 1831. He advocated for a unified, republican Italy through popular uprising and public education. Although his direct attempts at revolution failed, his ideas inspired many.
- Victor Emmanuel II: King of Piedmont-Sardinia (and later the first King of unified Italy). He provided the legitimacy and monarchical framework for the unification movement.
Piedmont-Sardinia's Leadership
Under Cavour, Piedmont-Sardinia modernized its economy and army, positioning itself as the natural leader of the unification movement.
Alliance with France (1858) and War with Austria (1859)
- Cavour negotiated a secret alliance with Napoleon III of France (Pact of Plombières).
- Piedmont-Sardinia, with French support, provoked Austria into war.
- Victories at Magenta and Solferino liberated Lombardy from Austrian rule, which was then annexed by Piedmont-Sardinia. France, however, made a separate peace with Austria (Villafranca), leaving Venetia under Austrian control.
Annexation of Central Italian States (1860)
Inspired by the successes, popular revolts in Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (Romagna) led to plebiscites that favored union with Piedmont-Sardinia.
Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand (1860)
- Garibaldi, with his 'Red Shirts' volunteers, sailed to Sicily and rapidly conquered the island, then crossed to the mainland and marched north, conquering the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples).
- Cavour, fearing a republican takeover and French intervention, sent Piedmontese troops south. Garibaldi, a committed nationalist, met King Victor Emmanuel II at Teano and voluntarily ceded his conquests to the King, effectively uniting southern Italy with the north.
Annexation of Venetia (1866)
Italy allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War. Despite military setbacks, Prussia's victory allowed Italy to gain Venetia from Austria.
Annexation of Rome (1870)
Rome, the capital of the Papal States, was protected by French troops. When France withdrew its troops during the Franco-Prussian War, Italian forces seized Rome. It became the capital of unified Italy in 1871, completing the unification process (though the Pope remained a 'prisoner' in the Vatican until the Lateran Treaty of 1929).
- Reasons: Bismarck feared that the loyalty of Catholics might be divided between the Pope and the German state. He also saw the Centre Party as an obstacle to his policies.
- Measures:
- The May Laws (1873) placed the education and appointment of priests under state control.
- Jesuits were expelled.
- State supervision of church schools.
- Civil marriage was made compulsory.
- Outcome: The Kulturkampf largely failed. It strengthened Catholic identity, and the Centre Party gained more seats in the Reichstag. Bismarck gradually relaxed and then abandoned the policies, seeking alliances with the Centre Party against the growing socialist threat.
- Reasons: Fear of socialist revolution, especially after two assassination attempts on Emperor Wilhelm I (which Bismarck blamed on socialists).
- Measures:
- The Anti-Socialist Laws banned socialist organizations, meetings, and publications.
- Police were given powers to suppress socialist activities.
- Outcome: While the laws suppressed overt socialist activity, they failed to curb the growth of the SPD, which continued to gain support through legal means (elections). Bismarck realized repression alone was insufficient.
- Sickness Insurance Law (1883): Provided medical care and sick pay for industrial workers, funded by employers and employees.
- Accident Insurance Law (1884): Compensated workers for workplace injuries, funded entirely by employers.
- Old Age and Disability Insurance Law (1889): Provided pensions for workers over 70 and disability benefits, funded by workers, employers, and the state.
- Significance: These reforms were groundbreaking, making Germany a pioneer in state-sponsored social welfare. They aimed to integrate the working class into the state and reduce revolutionary fervor, though they did not entirely stop the rise of socialism.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
The newly formed German Empire became a major European power, fundamentally altering the balance of power on the continent.
Unification of Italy
The unification of Italy, known as the 'Risorgimento' (Resurgence), was a long and complex process that transformed a fragmented peninsula into a single nation-state by 1871. Prior to unification, Italy was divided into numerous independent states, many under foreign domination.
Conditions Before Unification
Key Figures of Unification
The unification of Italy was largely led by three prominent figures, often referred to as the 'Brains, Sword, and Soul':
Key Events of Unification
While politically unified, the new Kingdom of Italy faced significant challenges, including regional disparities, a largely illiterate populace, and ongoing tensions with the Papacy.
Home and Foreign Policy of Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890, implemented a series of domestic and foreign policies aimed at consolidating German unity, strengthening the state, and ensuring Germany's security and dominance in Europe.
Bismarck's Home Policy
Bismarck's domestic policies focused on strengthening the central government, dealing with internal perceived threats, and introducing pioneering social reforms.
Kulturkampf (1871-1878)
The 'Kulturkampf' (Culture Struggle) was a conflict between the German state, led by Bismarck, and the Catholic Church. Bismarck viewed the Catholic Church, particularly after the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870, and the Catholic Centre Party as a threat to the unity and secular authority of the new German Empire.
Anti-Socialist Laws (1878-1890)
Bismarck perceived the rapid growth of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and its socialist ideology as a revolutionary threat to the state and social order.
Social Reforms (State Socialism)
To undercut the appeal of socialism and gain the loyalty of the working class, Bismarck introduced a series of pioneering social welfare measures, often referred to as 'State Socialism'.
Bismarck's Foreign Policy
After German unification in 1871, Bismarck's primary foreign policy goal was to maintain peace in Europe and preserve Germany's newly achieved status and security. He famously declared Germany a 'saturated power,' meaning it had no further territorial ambitions in Europe. His strategy focused on isolating France and building a complex system of alliances.
Bismarck's foreign policy can be summarized by two main objectives: isolating France, to prevent it from seeking revenge for Alsace-Lorraine, and preventing a two-front war for Germany by maintaining good relations with both Austria-Hungary and Russia.
The Bismarckian Alliance System
Bismarck meticulously constructed a web of alliances to ensure European stability and German security. This system aimed to prevent France from finding allies and to maintain peace among the Eastern powers.
| Alliance | Members | Year | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Three Emperors' League (Dreikaiserbund) | Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia | 1873, renewed 1881 | To neutralize conflicts between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans and isolate France. Based on monarchical solidarity. |
| Dual Alliance | Germany, Austria-Hungary | 1879 | A defensive alliance against Russia (if Russia attacked either) and against France (if France attacked Germany, Austria would be benevolent neutral). Formed after relations with Russia soured. |
| Triple Alliance | Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy | 1882 | Italy joined due to resentment over France's occupation of Tunisia. A defensive alliance against France and Russia. |
| Reinsurance Treaty | Germany, Russia | 1887 | A secret treaty ensuring neutrality between the two powers if either was attacked by a third power (unless Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria-Hungary). Signed after the Three Emperors' League collapsed due to Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans. |
Congress of Berlin (1878)
Bismarck acted as the 'honest broker' at the Congress of Berlin to resolve the 'Eastern Question' following the Russo-Turkish War. He mediated disputes, particularly between Russia and Austria-Hungary, to prevent a major European war. While Russia felt slighted, Bismarck's role temporarily stabilized the Balkans and maintained peace.
Colonial Policy
Initially, Bismarck was reluctant to pursue a colonial empire, believing it was too costly and diverted attention from European affairs. However, under domestic pressure and to maintain good relations with other European powers, Germany eventually acquired some territories in Africa (e.g., German East Africa, German Southwest Africa) and the Pacific in the mid-1880s, marking the beginning of Germany's colonial ventures.
Bismarck's intricate alliance system successfully maintained peace in Europe for nearly two decades after unification, ensuring Germany's dominant position. His foreign policy was a testament to his skill in realpolitik and diplomacy.