Unit 5: Theories of Moral Standard
Table of Contents
1. Hedonism
Hedonism (from Greek hedone, meaning pleasure) is the theory that Pleasure is the highest good and the ultimate standard of morality. An action is right if it produces pleasure and wrong if it produces pain.
Types of Hedonism:
- Psychological Hedonism: A descriptive theory claiming that human beings naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain.
- Ethical Hedonism: A normative theory claiming that human beings ought to seek pleasure.
- Gross (Cyrenaic) Hedonism: Advocates for intense, immediate, physical pleasure.
- Refined (Epicurean) Hedonism: Advocates for mental, long-lasting, and tranquil pleasure (Ataraxia).
2. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism, or Social Hedonism, shifts the focus from the individual to society. Its core principle is the "Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number."
Key Thinkers:
- Jeremy Bentham (Quantitative Utilitarianism): Argued that all pleasures are equal in quality. He developed the Hedonistic Calculus to measure pleasure based on Intensity, Duration, Propinquity, etc.
- John Stuart Mill (Qualitative Utilitarianism): Argued that some pleasures are qualitatively superior to others. "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."
3. Kant’s Ethics (Deontology)
Immanuel Kant rejected the idea that consequences (pleasure/utility) determine morality. Instead, he argued that Duty and Good Will are the only things that are good without qualification.
The Categorical Imperative:
This is the supreme law of morality. Kant provided several formulations, including:
- Universal Law: Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
- Humanity as an End: Treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.
4. Perfectionism (Self-Realization)
Perfectionism, or Eudaemonism, argues that the moral standard is the realization of the whole self—not just the irrational desires (Hedonism) or just the abstract reason (Rigid Kantianism), but the harmonious development of the entire personality.
Comparison of Moral Standards
| Theory | Standard | Type | Motto |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hedonism | Personal Pleasure | Teleological | "Seek your own pleasure." |
| Utilitarianism | General Happiness | Teleological | "Greatest good for greatest number." |
| Kantianism | Moral Law / Duty | Deontological | "Duty for duty's sake." |
Exam Focus: Tips & FAQs
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: What is the Hedonistic Paradox?
A: The idea that if you consciously aim only at pleasure, you are likely to miss it. Pleasure is a byproduct of meaningful activities, not an end in itself.
Q: What is the difference between Act and Rule Utilitarianism?
A: Act Utilitarianism judges each specific action by its consequences. Rule Utilitarianism judges actions by whether they follow a rule that generally leads to the best consequences.
Exam Tip
In your answers, always contrast Deontological (Duty-based/Kant) and Teleological (Result-based/Utilitarian) theories. This distinction is fundamental to ethical theory.