1. Characteristics of Modern Philosophy

Modern Philosophy (beginning roughly in the 17th century) represents a shift away from the Scholasticism of the Middle Ages. Its primary features include:

• Autonomy of Reason: Reason is seen as the primary tool for seeking truth, independent of religious authority or tradition.
• Scientific Spirit: A deep influence from the nascent physical sciences (Newton, Galileo), emphasizing observation and mathematics.
• Subjective Turn: A new focus on the human mind and how we know things (Epistemology).
• Critical Outlook: A willingness to doubt and re-evaluate established dogmas.

2. Francis Bacon (Empiricism)

Bacon is often called the "Father of Experimental Philosophy." He sought to replace the abstract logic of Aristotle with a method that would allow humans to master nature.

The Inductive Method

Bacon advocated for Induction—gathering specific observations and moving toward general laws—over Deduction (starting with a general premise).

The Four Idols of the Mind

Bacon identified four prejudices or "Idols" that distort human understanding:

• Idols of the Tribe: Errors inherent in human nature (e.g., seeing patterns where none exist).
• Idols of the Cave: Personal prejudices stemming from one's upbringing, education, or environment.
• Idols of the Marketplace: Errors caused by the imprecise use of language and social interaction.
• Idols of the Theatre: False dogmas of philosophies and systems of thought that create a "theatrical" or fake world.

3. René Descartes (Rationalism)

Descartes is the founder of Modern Rationalism. He aimed to find a foundation for knowledge that was as certain as geometry.

The Method of Doubt

To reach certainty, Descartes decided to doubt everything that could possibly be doubted (the senses, the external world, even mathematics) until he found something indubitable.

Cogito Ergo Sum

Descartes discovered that he could doubt everything except the fact that he was doubting. Doubting is a form of thinking, and thinking requires a thinker. This led to his famous first principle:

"I think, therefore I am" (Cogito Ergo Sum)

Criteria of Truth

Descartes established that whatever the mind perceives clearly and distinctly must be true. This became his yardstick for all further knowledge, including his proofs for the existence of God and the external world.