Unit 2: Indus Valley Civilisation

1. Introduction
2. Town Planning
3. Socio-economic Life
4. Religious Practices
5. Causes of Decline
6. Exam Corner

1. Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age urban civilisation (c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE) in the northwestern regions of South Asia. It was one of the world's three earliest civilisations, along with Mesopotamia and Egypt, but was the most widespread.

2. Town Planning

The most striking feature of the IVC was its highly sophisticated urban planning, which was unique in the ancient world.

Key Features:

Grid-Iron Pattern: Cities were meticulously planned on a grid. Main streets ran north-south and east-west, intersecting at right angles.
Two-Part Division: Most cities were divided into two parts:
1. The Citadel (Western Mound): A raised, fortified area built on a mud-brick platform. It housed important public buildings like the Great Bath (at Mohenjo-Daro), the Granaries, and assembly halls. It was likely occupied by the ruling class.
2. The Lower Town (Eastern Mound): The larger residential area for the common people.
Exception: Dholavira (Gujarat) had a three-part division (Citadel, Middle Town, Lower Town) and a sophisticated water reservoir system.
Advanced Drainage System: This is the most impressive feature. Every house was connected to the main street drains. The drains were covered with bricks or stone slabs and had manholes for cleaning, showing a remarkable concern for public health.
Building Materials: They used standardised, baked bricks in a uniform ratio (1:2:4) for almost all construction.
Houses: Houses were built around a central courtyard and often had private wells and bathrooms.

3. Socio-economic Life

Stratified Society: The city layout (Citadel vs. Lower Town) implies a social hierarchy, with a ruling class (perhaps merchants or priests) and common people.
Food: They cultivated crops like wheat, barley, pulses, and were the first in the world to grow cotton. They also consumed meat, fish, and dairy.
Dress & Ornaments: Figurines show that both men and women wore ornaments (necklaces, bangles, armlets) made of beads (carnelian, lapis lazuli), shell, and semi-precious stones.
Amusements: People played dice, and numerous terracotta toys (carts, animals, whistles) have been found.

ii) Economic Life

Agriculture: This was the backbone of the economy. They used wooden ploughs (models found at Banawali).
Trade and Commerce: The IVC had a vast trade network.
- Internal Trade: With regions in Rajasthan (for copper), Karnataka (for gold), and Gujarat (for stones).
- External Trade: They had extensive trade with Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Mesopotamian texts refer to a trading partner called "Meluhha," which is believed to be the IVC.
Seals and Script: Trade was likely regulated using steatite seals. These are the most unique IVC artifact, often depicting animals (like the "unicorn" bull) and a line of script. The Harappan script is undeciphered.
Crafts: They were master craftsmen in bead-making, pottery (glossy Red-and-Black ware), and metal-working. The "Dancing Girl" bronze statue from Mohenjo-Daro shows their skill in bronze-casting.

4. Religious Practices

Since the script is unread, we must infer their beliefs from artifacts.

Mother Goddess: Numerous terracotta figurines of a female deity suggest a fertility cult.
"Proto-Shiva" (Pashupati Seal): A famous seal from Mohenjo-Daro shows a three-faced male deity, seated in a yogic posture, crowned with horns, and surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo). This is often identified as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva.
Nature Worship: They revered animals (like the Humped Bull) and trees (like the Pipal tree), which are common motifs on seals.
Fire Altars: Structures identified as fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal suggest ritual practices.
Burials: They practiced burial, typically laying the dead north-south with grave goods (pottery, ornaments).

Key Point: There is no evidence of large temples, grand palaces, or monumental statues of kings, unlike in Egypt or Mesopotamia.

5. Causes of Decline

The IVC began to decline around 1900 BCE, leading to the abandonment of cities. There was no single cause, but a combination of factors.

Theory	Explanation	Evidence / Proponent
Climate Change / Ecological	Increased aridity (drying) and the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river (often identified with the mythical Saraswati river) made agriculture unsustainable.	This is the most widely accepted theory today, supported by palaeo-climatic studies.
Aryan Invasion	A theory that invading "Aryan" tribes destroyed the cities.	Proposed by Mortimer Wheeler, but now largely discredited due to a lack of supporting archaeological evidence.
Floods or Tectonic Shifts	Repeated, catastrophic floods (evidence at Mohenjo-Daro) or earthquakes may have changed river courses, disrupting cities.	Plausible contributing factor in specific regions.
Internal Decay	A gradual breakdown of the complex trade network and administrative machinery.	Likely a contributing factor.

6. Exam Corner

Short Note: "Town Planning of the IVC"

Must mention: 1. Grid Pattern (right-angle streets). 2. Citadel and Lower Town. 3. Advanced, covered Drainage System. 4. Standardised Baked Bricks.

Short Note: "Harappan Seals"

Must mention: 1. Made of steatite. 2. Used for trade/ownership. 3. Depict animals (Unicorn, Humped Bull) and a line of script. 4. The script is pictographic and remains undeciphered.

Long Question: "Discuss the main features of the IVC and its causes of decline."

Features: Dedicate paragraphs to Town Planning, Social Life, Economic Life (trade, crafts), and Religion.
Decline: Do NOT list only one cause. Explain that it was a combination of factors, emphasizing the ecological/climate change theory as the most likely primary cause, while mentioning (and dismissing) the outdated invasion theory.