Unit 1: Introduction to Indian Philosophy

General ideas about the schools of Indian Philosophy

The term 'Indian Philosophy' refers to the philosophical traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. In Sanskrit, the term for philosophy is Darśana, which literally means "vision" or "seeing." It implies a direct perception of truth, not just intellectual speculation. These schools are all fundamentally concerned with the nature of reality, the self, and the path to liberation (Moksha).

Indian Philosophy is traditionally classified into two broad categories: Āstika (Orthodox) and Nāstika (Heterodox).

Key Distinction: The primary criterion for this division is not belief in God. Instead, it is the acceptance (Āstika) or rejection (Nāstika) of the authority of the Vedas as a source of knowledge.

Āstika (Orthodox) Schools

These schools accept the authority of the Vedas. There are six major systems (known as Ṣaḍdarśana), which are often grouped into three pairs based on their metaphysical and logical similarities:

1. Nyāya: The school of logic and epistemology. It focuses on the conditions of correct knowledge and the means of acquiring it.
2. Vaiśeṣika: The school of atomistic pluralism. It explains the world through a set of categories (Padārthas) and argues that all physical objects are composed of indivisible atoms (Paramāṇu).
3. Sāṃkhya: A strongly dualistic school that posits two ultimate realities: Puruṣa (consciousness, the self) and Prakṛti (matter, nature).
4. Yoga: The practical application of Sāṃkhya philosophy. It accepts Sāṃkhya's metaphysics but adds the concept of God (Īśvara) and provides a practical, meditative path to achieve liberation (Kaivalya).
5. Mīmāṃsā (or Pūrva Mīmāṃsā): This school focuses on the exegesis of the ritualistic portions of the Vedas (the Brāhmaṇas). It emphasizes the performance of duty (Dharma) as prescribed in the Vedas.
6. Vedānta (or Uttara Mīmāṃsā): This school focuses on the philosophical (speculative) portions of the Vedas (the Upaniṣads). It explores the nature of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (the Self). It has several sub-schools, including Advaita (non-dualism), Viśiṣṭādvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism).

Nāstika (Heterodox) Schools

These schools reject the authority of the Vedas. The three main Nāstika schools are:

1. Cārvāka (or Lokāyata): A thoroughly materialistic and skeptical school. It rejects the soul, rebirth, and any reality beyond what can be perceived by the senses.
2. Buddhism: Founded by Gautama Buddha, this school rejects a permanent self (Anātman) and the authority of the Vedas. It offers a "Middle Path" to achieve Nirvāṇa (liberation from suffering).
3. Jainism: Based on the teachings of the Tīrthaṅkaras (like Mahāvīra), this school emphasizes non-violence (Ahiṃsā), non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda), and non-attachment (Aparigraha).

Upanisadic concept of Self (Ātman)

The Upaniṣads, which form the concluding part of the Vedas, are also known as Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas"). They shift the focus from Vedic rituals to philosophical inquiry into the ultimate nature of reality.

The two most important concepts in the Upaniṣads are Brahman and Ātman.

• Brahman (ब्रह्मन्): The Ultimate, Absolute Reality. It is the uncaused cause of the universe, the "ground of all being." It is described as eternal, infinite, unchanging, and the source and substance of everything.
• Ātman (आत्मन्): The individual self or soul. It is the innermost, true essence of a person, beyond the body, mind, and ego.

The Great Sayings (Mahāvākyas)

The central, revolutionary insight of the Upaniṣads is the identity of the individual self (Ātman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman). This is expressed in several "Great Sayings" (Mahāvākyas):

Tat Tvam Asi — "That Thou Art" (That You Are)

This is the most famous Mahāvākya (from the Chāndogya Upaniṣad). It is the instruction from the teacher (Uddālaka) to his student (Śvetaketu), meaning: "The Ultimate Reality (Tat/Brahman) is the very same as your own inner self (Tvam/Ātman)."

Other Mahāvākyas include:

• Aham Brahmāsmi: "I am Brahman" (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad)
• Ayam Ātmā Brahma: "This Self (Ātman) is Brahman" (Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad)
• Prajñānam Brahma: "Consciousness is Brahman" (Aitareya Upaniṣad)

Characteristics of Atman

The Upaniṣads describe the Ātman as:

• Eternal (Nitya): It is not born, and it does not die. The body dies, but the Ātman continues.
• Unchanging (Avikārī): It is the silent, unaffected witness (Sākṣī) of all the changes in the body and mind.
• Pure Consciousness (Cit): Its essential nature is consciousness. It is the "light" that illuminates the mind, senses, and world.
• Beyond the Ego: The Ātman is *not* the 'I' that we normally identify with (our personality, thoughts, or feelings). This small 'I' is the ego (Ahaṃkāra), which is a product of ignorance (Avidyā).

The true nature of the Ātman is often described as Sat-Cit-Ānanda (Being-Consciousness-Bliss). Realizing this true self (Ātma-jñāna) is the key to liberation (Moksha) from the cycle of Karma and Saṃsāra.

Concept of Ṛta (ऋत)

The concept of Ṛta is one of the most fundamental concepts in the Vedas, particularly the Rigveda. It is the principle of cosmic, natural, and moral order.

Ṛta (ऋत) is the principle of natural, moral, and sacrificial order in the universe. It is the "cosmic law" that governs everything, from the movement of stars and the changing of seasons to the actions of humans and the efficacy of rituals.

• Cosmic Order: Ṛta is the law that makes the sun rise, the moon wax and wane, and the seasons change. It is the physical order of the universe.
• Moral Order: In the human sphere, Ṛta is the "right path" or moral law. Living in accordance with Ṛta is living righteously. Its opposite, Anṛta, means "disorder," "falsehood," and "sin."
• Ritual Order: Ṛta also governs the correct performance of sacrifices (Yajña). The rituals were seen as a way to align human life with the cosmic order, and only when performed correctly (according to Ṛta) would they be effective.

Evolution of the Concept: In later Indian thought, the concept of Ṛta becomes less prominent and is gradually absorbed into and replaced by the concepts of Dharma (moral and social duty) and Karma (the law of cause and effect).

Concept of Karma and Rebirth (Saṃsāra)

The Law of Karma and the concept of Rebirth are interconnected doctrines that form a cornerstone of almost all Indian philosophical schools (except Cārvāka).

Law of Karma (कर्म)

The Law of Karma (कर्म) is the universal law of moral cause and effect. It states that every action (Karma) produces a corresponding result or consequence (Phala), which the actor must experience. Good actions (Punya) lead to pleasure and a favorable rebirth, while bad actions (Pāpa) lead to pain and an unfavorable rebirth.

Types of Karma

To explain why people suffer or enjoy life without any apparent immediate cause, the theory of Karma is linked to a "storehouse" of karmic potencies. Karma is generally classified into three types:

1. Sañcita Karma (Accumulated): This is the vast "storehouse" of all karmic actions (both good and bad) from all past lives, which have not yet borne fruit.
2. Prārabdha Karma (Fructifying): This is the portion of Sañcita Karma that is "ripe" and has been allotted to be experienced in the current life. This karma determines one's birth, lifespan, and key life experiences (both pleasant and painful). It cannot be avoided.
3. Kriyamāṇa Karma (Being-made) / Āgāmī Karma (Future): This is the karma that we are creating in the present moment through our current actions and choices. This karma will be added to the Sañcita store and will bear fruit in the future (either later in this life or in a future life).

Rebirth (Saṃsāra)

• Saṃsāra (Rebirth): Karma is the engine that drives the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Saṃsāra). The unresolved karmic balance compels the soul (Ātman) to take on a new body to experience its consequences.
• Moksha (Liberation): The ultimate goal of all Indian philosophies (except Cārvāka) is Moksha (or Nirvāṇa). Moksha is the complete liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra. This is achieved by exhausting all karma and/or neutralizing its binding power through spiritual knowledge (Jñāna), devotion (Bhakti), or disinterested action (Karma-Yoga).