Buddhism is a Nāstika (heterodox) school founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha). It provides a "Middle Path" (Madhyamā Pratipad) which avoids the extremes of both self-indulgence (like Cārvāka) and severe asceticism. The core of Buddhist philosophy is interconnected and can be understood through its foundational doctrines.
After the Buddha's death, scholarly debates over the correct interpretation of his teachings led to the formation of various schools. The main division is between the Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna traditions.
| Feature | Hīnayāna ("Lesser Vehicle") | Mahāyāna ("Greater Vehicle") |
|---|---|---|
| Goal | Arhat-ship (individual liberation). | Bodhisattva-ship (liberation for all beings). |
| Ideal Figure | The Arhat (perfected saint). | The Bodhisattva (who postpones Nirvāṇa to help others). |
| View of Buddha | A human teacher, a great saint (but still human). | A transcendent, divine principle. (Trikāya doctrine). |
| Key Concept | Focus on Dukkha and Anātman (No-Self). | Focus on Śūnyatā (Emptiness) and Karunā (Compassion). |
| Major Schools | Theravāda (the only surviving Hīnayāna school), Sautrāntika, Vaibhāṣika. | Madhyamaka (founded by Nāgārjuna), Yogācāra (founded by Asaṅga). |
The philosophical doctrines in your syllabus (Pratītyasamutpāda, Nairātmyavāda, Kṣaṇikavāda) are common to most schools but are interpreted differently. For example, the Hīnayāna schools of Sautrāntika and Vaibhāṣika were realists, while the Mahāyāna schools of Madhyamaka and Yogācāra were idealists or nihilists.
The Four Noble Truths are the very foundation of Buddhism, delivered by the Buddha in his first sermon. They are presented as a medical diagnosis: identifying the illness, its cause, the cure, and the prescription.
"There is suffering." All life is inherently characterized by Dukkha. This includes obvious suffering like birth, sickness, old age, and death, but also subtle forms like "not getting what one wants," "being separated from what one loves," and the general, pervasive dissatisfaction of a life lived in ignorance.
"Suffering has a cause." The cause of suffering is Tṛṣṇā (Pali: Taṇhā), which means "thirst," "craving," "desire," or "attachment." We suffer because we crave pleasure, existence, and non-existence. This craving, rooted in ignorance (Avidyā), binds us to the cycle of rebirth (Saṃsāra).
"Suffering can cease." The complete cessation of suffering is possible. This state of cessation is called Nirvāṇa (Pali: Nibbāna), which is the "blowing out" of the flames of craving, hatred, and delusion. It is the ultimate goal—liberation from Saṃsāra.
"There is a path to the cessation of suffering." This path is the Noble Eightfold Path (Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga).
This is the practical prescription for ending Dukkha. The eight factors are grouped into three categories: Wisdom (Prajñā), Ethical Conduct (Śīla), and Mental Discipline (Samādhi).
Pratītyasamutpāda (Pali: Paṭiccasamuppāda) is the Buddha's explanation of *how* the second Noble Truth (the cause of suffering) works. It is the core metaphysical doctrine of Buddhism.
Pratītyasamutpāda, or "Dependent Origination," is the doctrine that all phenomena arise in dependence upon other phenomena. In short: "This being, that becomes; from the arising of this, that arises. This not being, that does not become; from the cessation of this, that ceases."
This doctrine explains the "Middle Path" in metaphysics:
This is most famously applied in the "Twelve Links" (Dvādaśa Nidānas) that explain the cycle of rebirth and suffering (Saṃsāra):
A circular diagram showing the 12 links: (1) Ignorance → (2) Formations (Karma) → (3) Consciousness → (4) Name-and-Form → (5) Six Senses → (6) Contact → (7) Feeling → (8) Craving (Tṛṣṇā) → (9) Clinging → (10) Becoming → (11) Birth → (12) Old Age and Death → (and back to 1. Ignorance).
The whole chain shows how craving (Tṛṣṇā) leads to suffering, and the whole chain is rooted in Ignorance (Avidyā). The path to liberation is to break this chain, which is done by destroying the first link (Ignorance) with Wisdom (Prajñā).
This is perhaps the most distinctive and challenging doctrine of Buddhism. It is a direct rejection of the Upaniṣadic concept of a permanent, eternal Ātman.
Nairātmyavāda (Sanskrit) or Anattā (Pali) is the doctrine of "No-Self" or "No-Soul." It states that there is no permanent, unchanging, independent entity called a "self" or "soul" underlying our existence.
So, what is the "person"? The Buddha analyzed the individual into Five Aggregates (Pañca-Skandhas):
The "self" or "I" is simply a conventional name (like "chariot") given to this temporary, constantly changing, dependently-arisen collection of the Five Aggregates. The problem (Dukkha) arises when we *cling* to this impermanent bundle, believing it to be a permanent "me."
Common Question: If there is no self (Anātman), who gets reborn? Who gets liberated?
Answer: Buddhism does not teach *no* self, but *no permanent* self. What continues is not a "soul" but the *karmic process*. It's like lighting one candle from another. The flame (karmic energy, consciousness) is "transferred," but the flame on the new candle is neither the same as, nor entirely different from, the old one. It is a new link in the causal chain of Pratītyasamutpāda.
This doctrine is a logical extension of Pratītyasamutpāda and Nairātmyavāda. It is also known as the doctrine of Impermanence (Anitya).
Kṣaṇikavāda (or Kṣaṇabhangavāda) is the doctrine of "momentariness." It states that all phenomena (including the Five Aggregates) are radically impermanent (Anitya), arising and passing away in every moment (kṣaṇa).
Nothing is static. Everything is in a state of constant flux. A river you see now is not the "same" river one moment later, as new water has flowed in. Likewise, the "you" who started reading this sentence is not the "same" you who is finishing it—your thoughts, feelings, and even physical cells have changed.
The "persistence" or "identity" we perceive in objects (like a table) and ourselves is an illusion. We are not a "being," but a "becoming"—a continuous, dynamic process, a "stream of consciousness."