Unit V: Arab Invasion

1. The Political Condition of Sind on the Eve of the Arab Invasion

In the early 8th century, Sind (a region in the lower Indus valley) was an independent kingdom on the frontier of India.

• Ruler: The kingdom was ruled by Raja Dahir, a Brahmin king who had usurped the throne from a previous Buddhist dynasty.
• Internal Divisions: This usurpation had led to deep internal divisions. The large Buddhist population, along with many jats and other groups, was dissatisfied with Dahir's rule and did not fully support him.
• Political Isolation: Sind was politically isolated from the rest of the major Indian kingdoms, like the Pratiharas in the east.
• Source: Our main, though biased, source for this period is the Chachnama, a Persian text.

2. Arab invasion of Sind and its effects

The Invasion (712 CE)

• Context: The Arabs, under the Umayyad Caliphate, were expanding their empire.
• Immediate Cause: Pirates operating from the port of Debal (in Sind) plundered some Arab ships. The governor of Iraq, Hajjaj, demanded compensation from Raja Dahir. Dahir's refusal (or inability) to comply provided the pretext for invasion.
• Leader: Hajjaj sent his young nephew and son-in-law, Muhammad bin Qasim, to lead the expedition.
• Course: Qasim, with a well-equipped army, captured Debal. He then met and defeated Raja Dahir at the Battle of Raor. Dahir fought bravely but was killed. Qasim then went on to capture the rest of Sind, including the capital Brahmanabad and the city of Multan.

Effects of the Invasion

The Arab conquest of Sind is often debated for its impact.

• Political Effects: (Limited)
  • The invasion was politically described by historian Stanley Lane-Poole as "an episode in the history of India... a triumph without results."
  • The Arabs remained confined to Sind and Multan. They were unable to advance further into India, blocked by powerful dynasties like the Gurjara-Pratiharas.
• Economic Effects: (Moderate)
  • It opened up direct trade and commerce between India and the Arab world, both by land and sea.
• Cultural Effects: (Most Significant)
  • This was the most important consequence. It led to a profound "give and take" of knowledge.
  • India to the Arab World: The Arabs learned extensively from Indian civilization. They adopted:
    • Mathematics: Indian numerals (0-9), which they called 'hindsa' (from Hind). These were later transmitted to Europe as "Arabic numerals."
    • Astronomy: Works like Brahmagupta's Brahmasphuta Siddhanta were translated.
    • Medicine: Indian medical texts (Charaka, Sushruta) and medical practices were adopted.
    • Literature: The Panchatantra was translated into Arabic.
  • The city of Baghdad became a center for translating Indian works into Arabic.

3. Indian invasion of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni

Nearly 300 years after the Arab invasion, a new wave of invasions began from the northwest, this time by the Turks.

• Who was he? Sultan Mahmud was the ruler of Ghazni (in modern-day Afghanistan). He was a Turk, not an Arab.
• Motive: His primary motive was plunder. He wanted the immense wealth of India (particularly its temples) to finance his wars and build his empire in Central Asia. He was a raider, not an empire-builder *in India*.
• The Invasions: Between c. 1000 and 1027 CE, Mahmud conducted 17 raids into North India.
• Targets: He systematically targeted wealthy cities and temples, including Nagarkot, Thanesar, and Kanauj.
• Sack of Somnath (1025 CE): His most infamous raid was against the prosperous Somnath temple in Gujarat. He looted vast treasures and destroyed the temple.
• Effects:
  • Drained North India of immense wealth.
  • Exposed the political disunity and military weakness of the Rajput kingdoms, who failed to unite against him.
  • His invasions paved the way for a third, more permanent, Turkic invasion by Muhammad Ghori.

4. Prithviraj Chauhan

• Prithviraj Chauhan (or Prithviraj III) was the most famous king of the Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasty.
• He ruled from his twin capitals of Ajmer and Delhi.
• He was a powerful warrior king who expanded his kingdom at the expense of his neighbours.
• Rivalry with Jayachandra: He is famous in legend for his rivalry with Jayachandra, the Gahadavala king of Kanauj, and his elopement with Jayachandra's daughter, Samyukta (as described in Prithviraj Raso).
• His historical importance, however, is defined by his two critical battles with Muhammad Ghori.

5. Battles of Tarain

These two battles, fought near Tarain (modern Taraori in Haryana), were a major turning point in Indian history. They were fought between Prithviraj Chauhan and Sultan Muhammad Ghori (ruler of Ghur, in Afghanistan).

• First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE):
  • Muhammad Ghori invaded Prithviraj's territory.
  • The Rajput forces, under Prithviraj, were superior. Ghori's army was routed, and he himself was wounded and forced to retreat.
  • Result: A decisive victory for Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE):
  • Muhammad Ghori returned a year later, much better prepared and with a larger army, including fast-moving mounted archers.
  • Prithviraj gathered a large confederacy of Rajput rulers, but his army was slow-moving and relied on war elephants.
  • Ghori used superior tactics (feigned retreat, flanking attacks) to break the Rajput ranks.
  • Result: A decisive victory for Muhammad Ghori. Prithviraj Chauhan was captured and killed.

Significance of the Second Battle of Tarain

• It was one of the most important battles in Indian history.
• It shattered Rajput power in the Gangetic plains.
• It opened the door for the establishment of Turkic (Muslim) rule in India.
• Following this victory, Ghori's general, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, captured Delhi and, after Ghori's death, established the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.