Unit I: Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate

1. Sources of Medieval Indian History

Understanding the Delhi Sultanate period relies on two main types of sources:

1. Literary Sources

• Court Chronicles (Tawarikh): These were histories written in Persian by scholars and court poets, often praising the ruling Sultan.
  • Taj-ul-Maasir by Hasan Nizami: Covers the period of Aibak.
  • Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-us-Siraj: A detailed history up to the reign of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, and a key source for Iltutmish.
  • Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani: A crucial source for the Tughluq dynasty, covering from Balban to Firoz Shah Tughluq.
  • Futuh-us-Salatin by Isami: A history of Muslim rule in India in verse.
• Travelogues (Rihla): Accounts written by foreign travelers.
  • The most famous is the Rihla (Travelogue) of Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveler who visited India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq.
• Vernacular & Religious Literature: Works like the Bhakti and Sufi texts (e.g., compositions of Kabir, Nanak) provide insights into the social and religious life of the common people.

2. Archaeological Sources

• Monuments: Buildings provide concrete evidence of the art, architecture, and engineering of the period.
  • Examples: The Qutb Minar and the Quwwat-ul-Islam (Might of Islam) mosque in Delhi, Tughluqabad Fort, tombs of Sultans (like Balban's and Ghiyasuddin Tughluq's).
• Inscriptions: Found on mosques, tombs, and pillars, they often provide dates, names of builders, and religious verses.
• Numismatics (Coins): Coins are a vital source. They reveal:
  • Names & Titles: The names of Sultans and their titles.
  • Dates: The period of their reign.
  • Economy: The metal used (gold, silver, copper, or mixed) indicates the economic health of the empire. Iltutmish, for example, standardized coinage (Tanka and Jital).

2. Qutb-ud-din Aibek: Career and achievements (1206-1210)

• Background: Aibak was a Turkic slave (Mamluk) of Muhammad Ghori. He was Ghori's most trusted general and was placed in charge of his Indian conquests.
• Foundation of the Sultanate: After Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206, Aibak declared himself the independent ruler of the Indian territories, founding the Mamluk (or Slave) Dynasty and establishing the Delhi Sultanate.
• Career & Achievements:
  • He ruled from Lahore, not Delhi, for his short 4-year reign.
  • He was known for his generosity, earning him the title 'Lakh Bakhsh' (Giver of Lakhs).
  • He spent most of his reign dealing with internal rebellions and challenges from other generals of Ghori, like Tajuddin Yildiz and Nasiruddin Qabacha.
  • Architecture: He began the construction of the Qutb Minar (named after a Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki) and the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi.
  • Death: He died accidentally in 1210 while playing Chaugan (a form of polo), falling from his horse.

3. Political Consolidation: Iltutmish (1211-1236)

Iltutmish, Aibak's son-in-law, is considered the "real founder" of the Delhi Sultanate. He consolidated the loose territories conquered by Ghori and Aibak into a stable, centralized empire.

• Securing the Throne: He first had to defeat Aibak's unpopular son, Aram Shah, to become Sultan.
• Major Challenges & Consolidation:
  • Defeating Rivals: He defeated his main rivals, Yildiz (in the Third Battle of Tarain, 1215) and Qabacha, securing the Sultanate's borders.
  • Mongol Threat: He saved India from the Mongol invasion led by Genghis Khan. When the Khwarizmi prince, Jalaluddin Mangbarni, fled to India seeking help, Iltutmish wisely refused to give him shelter, and the Mongols turned back from the Indus River.
  • Re-conquest: He suppressed rebellions in Bengal and re-conquered territories like Ranthambore and Gwalior.
• Administrative Reforms:
  • Capital: He shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi, making it the center of power.
  • Iqta System: He organized the empire through the Iqta system, where land was granted to nobles (Iqtadars) in exchange for military service and revenue collection.
  • Coinage: He introduced a standardized coinage: the silver Tanka and the copper Jital.
  • 'Chalisa': He created a corps of 40 loyal Turkic nobles, the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (or 'Chalisa'), to help him govern.
  • Legitimacy: He received a 'robe of honor' from the Caliph of Baghdad, giving him religious and political legitimacy as the Sultan of India.
• He completed the construction of the Qutb Minar.

4. Ghiyasuddin Balban: Theory of Kingship (1266-1287)

After a period of instability following Iltutmish's death, Balban, a powerful member of the 'Chalisa', seized the throne. His main contribution was his Theory of Kingship, designed to restore the power, prestige, and stability of the Sultan.

Context: The monarchy had lost its respect, and the 'Chalisa' nobles had become kingmakers and were challenging the Sultan's authority. Balban aimed to fix this.

Key Features of Balban's Theory of Kingship:

• Divine Right of Kings: Balban claimed the king was the 'Zil-i-Illahi' (Shadow of God on Earth) and the 'Niyabat-i-Khudai' (Viceregent of God). This meant the king's power was not granted by nobles, but by God.
• Royal Descent: He claimed noble lineage, tracing his ancestry to the mythical Persian hero, Afrasiyab, to assert his superiority over the other Turkic nobles.
• Destroying the 'Chalisa': He had been part of the 'Chalisa', so he knew how dangerous they were. He systematically destroyed their power, either by assassination, banishment, or by stripping them of their influence.
• Creation of a Strong Spy System: He established an efficient network of spies (barids) to monitor the nobles and officials, ensuring no one could conspire against him.
• Strong, Centralized Army: He separated the military (Diwan-i-Ariz) from the finance department, ensuring the army was loyal, well-paid, and efficient.
• Court Discipline (Persian Model): He introduced a strict and opulent court culture to inspire awe and fear.
  • No Laughing: Laughter, drinking, and informal behavior were banned in court.
  • Sijda & Paibos: He introduced the Persian customs of Sijda (prostration before the king) and Paibos (kissing the king's feet), forcing the nobles to accept a position of absolute inferiority.
  • Nauroz: He began the celebration of the Persian New Year, Nauroz.