Unit II: The Khalji and Tughluq Dynasties

1. Conquests of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

Alauddin Khalji, who came to power by assassinating his uncle Jalaluddin Khalji, was a ruthless and highly ambitious military imperialist. His conquests were vast, covering both North and South India.

Conquests in North India:

• Gujarat (1299): He captured the wealthy province of Gujarat. It was here that his general, Nusrat Khan, acquired the slave Malik Kafur, who would later lead his southern campaigns.
• Ranthambore (1301): A powerful Rajput fort, captured after a long siege.
• Chittor (1303): The famous siege of Chittor, where, according to legend (from Malik Muhammad Jayasi's Padmavat), he was driven by a desire to capture Rani Padmini. The Rajput women, including the queen, are said to have committed Jauhar (mass self-immolation).
• Malwa & others (1305): He subsequently conquered other kingdoms like Malwa, Ujjain, and Mandu.

Conquests in South India (Deccan):

• Alauddin was the first Sultan of Delhi to send armies into the Deccan.
• His southern campaigns were led by his general, Malik Kafur.
• Objective: Unlike his northern conquests, his aim in the south was not to annex territory. His goal was wealth (plunder) and to make the southern kings his vassals (feudatories) who would pay him annual tribute.
• Major Campaigns:
  • Devagiri: Defeated Ramachandra Deva (Yadava dynasty).
  • Warangal: Defeated Prataparudra Deva (Kakatiya dynasty). This is where Kafur obtained the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond.
  • Dwarasamudra: Defeated Vira Ballala III (Hoysala dynasty).
  • Madurai: Raided the Pandya kingdom, acquiring immense treasure.

2. Economic measures of Alauddin Khalji

To support his massive army (needed for conquests and to fight off Mongol invasions), Alauddin implemented revolutionary economic reforms. His goal was to control prices to keep his army's maintenance costs low.

Key Economic Measures:

• Market Control Policy (Price Fixation):
  • He fixed the cost of all essential commodities, from grain and sugar to horses, slaves, and cloth.
  • He set up three separate markets in Delhi: one for grains (Mandi), one for cloth and groceries (Sarai-Adl), and one for horses and slaves.
• Enforcement:
  • High-level officers, the Shahna-i-Mandi (Superintendent of the Market) and Diwan-i-Riyasat (Commerce Minister), were appointed to oversee the markets.
  • A network of spies (barids) reported directly to him.
  • Punishments for cheating were severe (e.g., a merchant who "under-weighed" would have an equal amount of flesh cut from his body).
• Revenue Reforms:
  • Land Measurement: He was the first Sultan to order a systematic measurement of land (based on biswa) to assess tax.
  • High Tax Rate: He raised the land tax (Kharaj) to 50% of the produce, the maximum allowed.
  • Abolition of Middlemen: He eliminated the traditional power of local chieftains (Khuts, Muqaddams) to collect taxes, weakening their power and increasing state revenue.
  • He also imposed a grazing tax (Charai) and a house tax (Ghari).

3. Reforms of Muhammad Bin Tughluq (1325-1351)

Muhammad bin Tughluq (MBT) was a brilliant scholar, but his ambitious projects were far ahead of their time and poorly executed, leading to widespread failure and earning him a reputation as the "wise fool."

The Four Great "Reforms" (Failures):

1. Taxation in the Doab (1326):
   • What: He increased the land tax in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab region.
   • Why it Failed: The tax increase was too steep and, tragically, it was imposed during a severe famine. Peasants, unable to pay, abandoned their lands and fled, leading to a massive agrarian crisis.
2. Transfer of Capital (1327):
   • What: He ordered the capital to be shifted from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri) in the Deccan.
   • Why: He wanted a more centrally located capital to control his vast empire.
   • Why it Failed: He didn't just move the government; he forced the entire population of Delhi to move. The 1,500 km journey was brutal, and many died. He later realized the move was impractical (as he couldn't control the north from the south) and ordered everyone back to Delhi.
3. Token Currency (1329):
   • What: He introduced a "token currency", issuing coins of bronze and copper that were to have the same value as silver coins (Tanka).
   • Why: There was a worldwide shortage of silver. The idea itself was sound (like modern paper money).
   • Why it Failed: He failed to make the minting of coins a state monopoly. People began counterfeiting the new coins in their homes. Soon, the market was flooded with fake coins, foreign trade stopped, and the economy collapsed. He had to repeal the reform and exchange all the fake coins for real silver, emptying the treasury.
4. Khurasan Expedition (1329-30):
   • What: He raised a massive army (reportedly 370,000 men) to invade Khurasan (Persia).
   • Why it Failed: He paid the army a full year's salary in advance. However, the political situation in Khurasan changed, and the expedition was abandoned. The disbanded, unemployed soldiers became a source of unrest.

4. Contribution of Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388)

After the chaos of his cousin MBT, Firoz Shah Tughluq was a much quieter, more orthodox, and welfare-oriented ruler. His reign was one of peace and development, but also one that strengthened religious orthodoxy and had long-term administrative weaknesses.

Key Contributions:

• Public Works (The "Builder"):
  • Canal System: His greatest achievement was building a vast network of canals for irrigation in the Haryana-Punjab region, leading to huge agricultural prosperity.
  • New Cities: He was a prolific builder, founding cities like Firozabad (in Delhi), Jaunpur, Hisar, and Fatehabad.
  • He also repaired old monuments like the Qutb Minar.
• Economic & Social Welfare:
  • Diwan-i-Khairat: A department to give charity to the poor, especially for the marriage of poor Muslim girls.
  • Dar-ul-Shafa: A charitable hospital in Delhi.
  • Diwan-i-Bandagan: A department for the welfare of slaves (he had over 180,000).
• Religious Policy (Orthodoxy):
  • He was a devout, orthodox Sunni Muslim. He tried to rule according to Islamic law (Sharia).
  • He abolished many of the "un-Islamic" taxes of his predecessors, keeping only the four sanctioned by the Quran.
  • Jizya: He imposed the Jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) as a separate tax and even extended it to Brahmins, who had previously been exempt.
• Administrative "Weaknesses":
  • To please the nobles, he revived the Iqta system and made it hereditary.
  • He also made military positions hereditary. This move weakened the central authority and the army, contributing to the Sultanate's decline after his death.