Unit 1: Foundational Concepts in Western Ethics
Ethics: Its Nature and Concern
Ethics, or Moral Philosophy, is the branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term "ethics" comes from the Greek word ethos, meaning "character" or "custom."
- Nature: Ethics is a prescriptive or normative discipline, not merely a descriptive one.
- Descriptive ethics (like sociology or anthropology) simply describes how people behave or what morals they *happen* to have.
- Prescriptive (Normative) ethics investigates what people should do, and what moral principles should govern their behavior.
- Concern: The fundamental concern of ethics is to answer the "big questions" of human life:
- What is the best way to live?
- What makes an action right or wrong?
- What is 'good', and how do we live a good life?
- How should we balance our own interests against the interests of others?
Normative Ethics and Meta-Ethics
Ethics is commonly divided into three main fields: Normative Ethics, Meta-Ethics, and Applied Ethics (which is covered in Unit V).
Exam Tip: Remember this simple distinction:
- Normative Ethics is about *doing* morality (prescribing actions).
- Meta-Ethics is about *thinking about* morality (analyzing concepts).
A normative statement is "Stealing is wrong." A meta-ethical question is "What do we mean when we say 'wrong'?"
Fundamental Concepts: Rights and Duties
Rights and duties are the two sides of the same coin in moral and legal philosophy. They are correlative.
- Right: A moral or legal entitlement to have or obtain something, or to act in a certain way. It is a claim that one person can make against another.
- Example: The "right to life" is an entitlement to not be killed.
- Duty: A moral or legal obligation to act or refrain from acting in a certain way.
- Example: The "duty to not kill" is the obligation that corresponds to the right to life.
Correlation: My right to X implies your duty to honor that right. For example, my right to free speech implies a duty on others *not* to silence me, and possibly a duty on the government to *protect* my speech.
Fundamental Concepts: Good and Virtue
1. Good
'Good' is the most fundamental concept in ethics. We distinguish between two types:
- Intrinsic Good: Something that is good in and of itself, not for what it leads to. It is an end-in-itself.
- Examples: Happiness, pleasure, knowledge, 'the good will' (for Kant).
- Extrinsic (or Instrumental) Good: Something that is good because it is a means to an end; it helps us get something else that is good.
- Examples: Money (it's good because it buys food/shelter), a car, a pen.
2. Virtue
A virtue (Latin: virtus) is a trait or quality of moral excellence. It is a good character trait.
- While 'good' can refer to actions or outcomes, 'virtue' refers to the person or their character.
- Virtue Ethics (see Unit II) is the theory that focuses on developing virtue as the primary goal of ethics.
- Examples: Honesty, courage, compassion, justice, generosity, temperance.
Fundamental Concepts: Object of Moral Judgement
When we say an action is "right" or "wrong," what part of the action are we actually judging? This is a critical question that divides the major ethical theories.
What are we judging?
- The Consequence (the result of the action).
- The Intention (the motive or will behind the action).
- The Action Itself (the nature of the act, regardless of motive or result).
- The Character (the person performing the action).
This question directly leads to the different normative theories:
- If the Consequence is the object of judgement, you get Teleological Ethics (like Utilitarianism). A "good" act is one with good results. (Unit II)
- If the Intention or the Action Itself is the object, you get Deontological Ethics (like Kantianism). A "good" act is one done from the right motive or that follows the right rule. (Unit III)
- If the Character of the person is the object, you get Virtue Ethics. A "good" act is one that a virtuous person would perform. (Unit II)