Unit 1: Foundations of Indian Philosophy

General Ideas about the Schools of Indian Philosophy
Upanisadic Concept of Self (Ātman)
Concept of Ṛta
Concept of Karma and Rebirth

General Ideas about the Schools of Indian Philosophy

Indian Philosophy (Darśana, meaning "vision" or "way of seeing") is traditionally classified into two broad categories based on their acceptance of the authority of the Vedas.

Category	Meaning	Schools Included
Āstika (Orthodox)	These schools accept the authority of the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge.	The Six "Shad-Darśanas": Nyāya: The school of logic. Vaiśeṣika: The school of atomistic metaphysics. Sāṃkhya: The school of dualistic realism (Puruṣa-Prakṛti). Yoga: The school of practice (based on Sāṃkhya metaphysics). Mīmāṃsā: The school of Vedic ritual and interpretation. Vedānta: The school of Upanishadic philosophy (includes Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita).
Nāstika (Heterodox)	These schools reject the authority of the Vedas.	Cārvāka: The materialist school. Buddhism: Based on the teachings of the Buddha. Jainism: Based on the teachings of the Tirthankaras.

Exam Tip: The test for Āstika/Nāstika is not belief in God. It is belief in the authority of the Vedas. For example, Sāṃkhya and Mīmāṃsā are "atheistic" (or non-theistic) schools, but they are still Āstika because they accept the Vedas.

Upanisadic Concept of Self (Ātman)

The Upanishads form the philosophical part of the Vedas (known as Vedānta, "the end of the Vedas"). Their central quest is to find the ultimate reality and the true nature of the self.

Ātman: This is the true Self. It is the eternal, unchanging, pure consciousness that is the "witness" (sākṣī) within every individual. It is beyond the body, mind, and ego.
Brahman: This is the Ultimate Reality of the universe. It is the single, all-pervading, absolute principle of existence.

The Core Teaching: The Upanishads declare that the individual self (Ātman) is, in its essence, identical to the ultimate reality (Brahman).
Ātman = Brahman

This is expressed in the Mahāvākyas ("Great Sayings"):

"Tat Tvam Asi" (That Thou Art) - You are that ultimate reality.
"Aham Brahmāsmi" (I am Brahman) - My true self is Brahman.

The goal of life (Mokṣa) is to realize this identity, which liberates one from the cycle of birth and death.

Concept of Ṛta

Ṛta is one of the earliest concepts of Indian thought, found in the Rigveda.

Definition: Ṛta (or Ritam) is the "Cosmic Order" or "Universal Law." It is the principle of truth, harmony, and justice that governs the entire universe.

It controls the movement of the stars, the changing of the seasons, the rising and setting of the sun, and the laws of nature.
It also governs the moral world. Living a moral life, for the Vedic people, meant living in accordance with Ṛta.
Actions that went against this harmony were called Anṛta (disorder, untruth) and were considered immoral.
The god Varuṇa is often described as the guardian of Ṛta.

Key Point: Ṛta is an impersonal and automatic law. It is the conceptual forerunner to the later, more developed ideas of Dharma (societal and moral law) and Karma (individual moral law).

Concept of Karma and Rebirth

This is the foundational moral framework of nearly all Indian philosophical systems (except Cārvāka).

Karma: Literally means "action." The Law of Karma is the universal principle of moral cause and effect. Every action (cause) inevitably leads to a corresponding consequence (effect, or phala).
- Good actions (Puṇya) lead to happiness and a favorable rebirth.
- Bad actions (Pāpa) lead to suffering and an unfavorable rebirth.
Rebirth (Saṃsāra): This is the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Since the consequences of all actions cannot be experienced in one lifetime, the soul (Jīva) must take on new bodies to "reap" what it has "sown."

The goal of Indian philosophy (Mokṣa or Nirvāṇa) is to achieve liberation from this cycle.

Types of Karma (for Exam)

For a deeper understanding, Karma is often classified into three types.

Type of Karma	Meaning	Analogy (The Archer)
1. Sañchita Karma	The "accumulated" karma. The vast storehouse of all your past karmas from all past lives, waiting to bear fruit.	The quiver full of arrows on the archer's back.
2. Prārabdha Karma	The "fructifying" karma. The portion of Sañchita karma allotted for this current life. It determines your birth, family, and major life events.	The arrow that has already been shot. You cannot recall it; you must experience its impact.
3. Kriyamāṇa Karma (or Āgāmi Karma)	The "current" karma. The new actions you are performing right now. This is where your free will lies. These actions create your future and add to your Sanchita store.	The arrow you are currently nocking on the bow, deciding where to aim.