The Reformation was a 16th-century religious, political, and intellectual upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the modern era.
In 1517, Martin Luther, a German monk, nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church. His core beliefs included:
The Catholic Church responded to the Protestant challenge with its own internal reform and defensive measures.
This council reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings but also addressed corruption:
Founded by Ignatius Loyola, the Jesuits focused on education, missionary work, and absolute obedience to the Pope. They were instrumental in stopping the spread of Protestantism in Southern Europe and Poland.
What began as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire evolved into a massive struggle for European power involving major dynasties like the Hapsburgs and Bourbons.
The war ended with this landmark treaty, which changed the map of Europe and the nature of politics:
As centralized states emerged, they adopted an economic theory known as Mercantilism.
The shift from a land-based economy to a trade-based global economy, involving the rise of Joint-Stock Companies (like the EIC) and modern banking.
Q: What was the immediate cause of the Thirty Years' War?
A: The Defenestration of Prague (1618), where Protestant nobles threw Catholic officials out of a window.
Q: How did Mercantilism drive European expansion?
A: Nations needed colonies to secure exclusive access to raw materials and to maintain a favorable balance of trade.