Unit 4: The Age of Enlightenment and the Crisis of France
1. The Enlightenment: Intellectual Current
The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement that emphasized Reason, Science, and Individualism over tradition and religious dogma.
Core Themes:
- Rationalism: The belief that human reason is the primary source of knowledge.
- Progress: The conviction that society can be improved through education and reform.
- Secularism: Promoting a separation between the church and state affairs.
2. Major Thinkers
Three French philosophers (Philosophes) laid the ideological groundwork for modern democracy and the French Revolution.
A. Montesquieu (1689–1755)
In his work The Spirit of the Laws, he proposed the Separation of Powers.
- Divided government into three branches: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial.
- Goal: To prevent any one person or group from becoming tyrannical.
[Image of the three branches of government: legislative, executive, judicial]
B. Voltaire (1694–1778)
Voltaire was a champion of Civil Liberties, particularly freedom of speech and religious tolerance.
"I detest what you write, but I would give my life to make it possible for you to continue to write." (Attributed)
- Fierce critic of the Catholic Church’s intolerance and the injustice of the French legal system.
C. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
In The Social Contract, he introduced the concept of the General Will.
- Argued that a government's legitimacy comes from the consent of the governed.
- "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."
3. The Crisis of the Old Regime (Ancien Régime)
The "Old Regime" refers to the social and political system of France before 1789, characterized by deep inequality.
The Three Estates System:
4. France on the Eve of the Revolution
By the late 1780s, several factors converged to push France toward a breaking point.
Major Factors:
- Financial Bankruptcy: Massive debt due to wars (American Revolution) and royal extravagance.
- Economic Hardship: Bad harvests led to food shortages and the "Great Fear" among peasants.
- Weak Leadership: Louis XVI was indecisive and unable to push through tax reforms against noble opposition.
- Calling of the Estates-General (1789): The first meeting of all three estates in 175 years, which ultimately sparked the revolution.
5. Exam Corner
Exam Tip: For long answers, link the ideological causes (Enlightenment) with the material causes (estates system and hunger) to show why the Revolution was inevitable.
Common Pitfall: Do not say the Enlightenment caused the revolution alone. It provided the language and ideas for people who were already suffering from economic crisis.
FAQs
Q: What was the "General Will"?
A: Rousseau's idea that laws should reflect the collective interest of the people rather than the desires of a monarch.
Q: Why did the Third Estate rebel?
A: Because they bore the entire tax burden of the country while having no political power or voice in the government.