Unit 4: Sabda and Upamana

Sabda (Verbal Testimony)

In Tarkasamgraha, Sabda is the fourth Pramana. It is defined as the testimony of a reliable person (Aptavakya). A person is considered "reliable" (Apta) if they possess the truth and have the desire to communicate it exactly as it is.

"The word of a reliable person is Sabda."

Two Types of Sabda:

• Vaidika: The words of the Vedas, which are considered infallible as they are the word of God (in Nyaya).
• Laukika: Secular testimony from trustworthy human beings. Unlike Vaidika, Laukika Sabda is valid only if the speaker is actually an Apta.

Conditions of a Significant Sentence

For a group of words (sentence) to convey valid knowledge, it must fulfill four conditions (often discussed as part of the deeper study of Sabda):

1. Akansha (Expectancy): The words must have a mutual need for each other to complete the meaning.
2. Yogyata (Compatibility): The meanings of the words must not contradict each other (e.g., "Watering with fire" lacks Yogyata).
3. Sannidhi (Proximity): The words must be uttered in close succession without long pauses.
4. Tatparya (Intention): The context or intention of the speaker must be understood.

Upamana (Comparison)

Upamana is the third Pramana according to the Nyaya tradition. It is the source of knowledge regarding the relationship between a name and the object denoted by that name (Samjna-samjni-sambandha).

The Process of Upamana

It typically involves three steps:

• Learning an Analogy: A person hears from an expert that a "Gavaya" (wild ox) is like a cow.
• Perception of Similarity: The person later sees a Gavaya in the forest and perceives its similarity to a cow.
• Knowledge of Denotation: The person then realizes, "This is the object denoted by the word Gavaya."