Unit 5: Theories of Moral Standards

How do we define the 'Right' and the 'Good'?

Table of Contents

1. Hedonism

Hedonism (from the Greek hedone) is the theory that Pleasure is the highest good. An action is right if it results in pleasure and wrong if it results in pain.

  • Psychological Hedonism: Claims that humans naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain.
  • Ethical Hedonism: Claims that humans ought to seek pleasure.
  • Gross Hedonism (Cyrenaics): Emphasizes immediate, physical, and intense pleasures.
  • Refined Hedonism (Epicurus): Emphasizes mental, long-lasting, and tranquil pleasures (Ataraxia).

The Paradox of Hedonism: The observation that the more we consciously aim for pleasure, the more it seems to elude us. Pleasure is often a byproduct of other activities.

2. Utilitarianism (Social Hedonism)

Utilitarianism shifts the focus from individual pleasure to the Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number.

Key Thinkers:

  • Jeremy Bentham (Quantitative): Believed that all pleasures are equal in quality. He proposed the Hedonistic Calculus to measure pleasure based on intensity, duration, certainty, etc.
  • J.S. Mill (Qualitative): Argued that some pleasures are qualitatively superior to others.
    "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."

3. Deontology (Kant's Ethics of Duty)

Immanuel Kant argued that morality should not be based on consequences (like pleasure) but on Duty and Good Will. This is a non-consequentialist theory.

The Categorical Imperative:

A moral law that is unconditional and binding for everyone. Kant’s primary formulations include:

  1. Universal Law: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."
  2. Humanity as an End: Never treat people merely as a means to an end, but always as an end in themselves.

4. Perfectionism (Eudaemonism)

This theory argues that the moral standard is the Perfection of the Self or the realization of the whole human personality. It seeks a balance between reason, feeling, and desire. It is often associated with Aristotle’s concept of Eudaimonia (Flourishing).

Exam Essentials

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