Unit II: Post-War Revolutionary Europe and Quest for Security

This unit examines the radical socio-political shifts in Russia and the international community's attempts to establish a lasting peace structure following the First World War.

1. Russian Revolution 1917: Causes & Consequences

The Russian Revolution was one of the most explosive political events of the 20th century, marking the end of the Romanov dynasty and the birth of the Soviet Union.

Causes

• Political Oppression: The absolute and inefficient rule of Czar Nicholas II.
• Economic Distress: Widespread poverty among peasants and terrible working conditions in factories.
• Impact of WWI: Huge military losses and food shortages caused by Russia's involvement in the Great War.
• Revolutionary Ideas: The spread of Marxist ideology and the leadership of Vladimir Lenin.

Consequences

• End of Autocracy: The overthrow of the monarchy and the execution of the Czar.
• Communist State: The establishment of a Bolshevik government based on communist principles.
• Civil War: A brutal internal conflict between the "Reds" (Bolsheviks) and "Whites" (anti-Bolsheviks).
• Global Impact: Inspired socialist and communist movements worldwide.

2. League of Nations: Objectives & Failure

Established as a result of the Paris Peace Conference, the League of Nations was the first worldwide intergovernmental organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.

Aims and Objectives

• Collective Security: To prevent war through international cooperation.
• Disarmament: To reduce national armaments to the lowest possible point.
• Diplomatic Resolution: To settle disputes through negotiation and arbitration.

Organizations

• The Assembly: Represented all member states.
• The Council: Consisted of permanent and non-permanent members.
• Secretariat: The administrative body of the League.

Causes of Failure

• Lack of Military Power: The League had no army of its own to enforce decisions.
• Absence of Major Powers: The United States never joined; Germany and the USSR were excluded for many years.
• Self-Interest: Powerful nations often prioritized their own interests over League mandates.

3. The Mandate System

The Mandate System was a compromise between the Allied desire to retain former German and Ottoman colonies and their pledge of non-annexation.

Definition: A legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following WWI, administered on behalf of the League of Nations.

• Class A: Territories ready for near-future independence (e.g., Iraq, Palestine).
• Class B: Territories requiring long-term administration (mostly in Africa).
• Class C: Territories to be administered as integral parts of the mandatory power (e.g., South West Africa).

4. French Quest for Security: Locarno & Kellogg-Briand

France, feeling vulnerable after WWI, sought various international agreements to guarantee its borders and prevent future German aggression.

Locarno Agreements (1925)

• Border Guarantee: Germany, France, and Belgium agreed to respect their mutual borders as established at Versailles.
• Spirit of Locarno: Represented a period of improved relations and hope for European peace.

The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

• Renunciation of War: Signatory nations promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature".
• Limitation: It lacked enforcement mechanisms, making it largely symbolic.