Unit IV: Britain's Foreign Policy (1815-1878)

The period between 1815 and 1878 was a defining era for British foreign policy. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Britain emerged as the world's leading power. Its policy shifted from a focus on European stability through collective security to a more assertive, independent, and eventually imperialistic approach. [cite: 826-832]

1. Lord Castlereagh (1812–1822)

Lord Castlereagh was the architect of British foreign policy in the immediate post-Napoleonic era. His primary goal was to ensure long-term peace in Europe through a "Balance of Power". [cite: 827-828]

Key Principles and Actions:

• Congress of Vienna (1815): He played a central role in redrawing the map of Europe. He sought to surround France with "buffer states" to prevent future aggression.
• The Congress System: Castlereagh believed in "diplomacy by conference." He favored regular meetings between the Great Powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria) to resolve disputes collectively.
• Balance of Power: He aimed to prevent any single nation from dominating the continent.
• Policy of Non-Intervention: While he supported collective security, he increasingly resisted the attempts of the "Holy Alliance" (Russia, Prussia, Austria) to intervene in the internal affairs of other states to suppress revolutions.

2. George Canning (1822–1827)

George Canning succeeded Castlereagh and moved British policy toward a more liberal and independent direction, famously stating, "Every nation for itself, and God for us all."

Key Achievements and Shifts:

• Break with the Congress System: Canning disliked the idea of permanent European conferences and preferred independent British action.
• Support for South American Independence: He recognized the independence of Spain's South American colonies to prevent a French-Spanish monopoly on trade, claiming he "called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old."
• Greek Independence: He shifted British policy to support the Greek revolt against the Ottoman Empire, leading to the eventual independence of Greece.
• Portuguese Crisis: He sent British troops to Lisbon in 1826 to protect the constitutional government against a reactionary revolt, demonstrating his willingness to use force to support liberal interests.

3. Lord Palmerston (1830–1865)

Lord Palmerston dominated British foreign policy for over three decades. His approach was characterized by a robust defense of British interests and the use of "Gunboat Diplomacy."

Main Features of Palmerstonian Policy:

• "Civis Romanus Sum": In the Don Pacifico Affair (1850), he famously declared that every British subject should be protected by the British government wherever they were in the world, just as a Roman citizen had been.
• Gunboat Diplomacy: He did not hesitate to use the Royal Navy to threaten or coerce other nations to respect British trade or citizens (e.g., during the Opium Wars in China).
• Support for Liberalism: He generally supported constitutional movements in Europe (such as the 1848 revolutions) as long as they did not threaten the European balance of power.
• The Eastern Question: He worked to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empire to prevent Russian expansion into the Mediterranean, which led to British involvement in the Crimean War (1853–1856).

4. Benjamin Disraeli (1874–1880)

Benjamin Disraeli brought a new spirit of "Imperialism" to British foreign policy, focusing on the expansion and glorification of the British Empire.

Imperial and Strategic Maneuvers:

• Suez Canal Shares (1875): He acted quickly and secretly to purchase the Khedive of Egypt's shares in the Suez Canal, securing Britain's "highway to India."
• Empress of India (1876): He passed the Royal Titles Act, granting Queen Victoria the title "Empress of India," which served as a symbol of imperial pride.
• Congress of Berlin (1878): After a Russian victory over the Ottoman Empire, Disraeli successfully forced a revision of the peace terms. He secured Cyprus for Britain and checked Russian influence in the Balkans, returning to London claiming "Peace with Honour."
• The Great Game: He pursued an aggressive policy in Afghanistan to counter Russian influence near the Indian border.