Unit 1: Nyaya Epistemology (Pramana)
The Science of Logic and Correct Knowledge.
1. Prama and Pramana
The Nyaya school, founded by Gautama, is known as Anvikshiki (Science of Inquiry). It focuses on how we attain valid knowledge.
- Prama: Valid knowledge (accurate and certain).
- Pramana: The source or means of attaining valid knowledge.
- Prameya: The object of knowledge.
Nyaya recognizes four valid sources of knowledge.
2. Pratyaksha (Perception)
Perception is defined as knowledge arising from the contact of the sense organs with an object. Nyaya divides it into two main stages:
- Nirvikalpaka (Indeterminate): Immediate, raw sensation where we perceive an object but haven't named or categorized it yet.
- Savikalpaka (Determinate): Higher-level perception where we identify the object’s name, genus, and qualities.
3. Anumana (Inference)
Inference is "knowledge that follows other knowledge." It is based on the Vyapti—the invariable relation between the middle term and the major term.
The 5-Step Syllogism (Pancavayava):
- Pratijna (Proposition): The hill is on fire.
- Hetu (Reason): Because it has smoke.
- Udaharana (Example): Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (e.g., a kitchen).
- Upanaya (Application): This hill has smoke.
- Nigamana (Conclusion): Therefore, the hill is on fire.
4. Upamana and Shabda
- Upamana (Comparison): Knowledge gained by seeing the similarity between a known object and an unknown object (e.g., knowing what a 'gavaya' is by being told it looks like a cow).
- Shabda (Testimony): The words of a reliable person (Apta). Nyaya distinguishes between Vaidika (Divine) and Laukika (Secular) testimony.
Exam Essentials
- Vyapti: This is the "nerve of inference." Without the universal relation between smoke and fire, inference is impossible.
- Nyaya vs. Buddhism: Nyaya believes perception is determinate; early Buddhists believed only indeterminate perception is real.
- Short Note: "Explain the five members of the Nyaya Syllogism."