How are good and virtue corelated?
Good and virtue are intrinsically linked; 'Good' often refers to the ultimate end or value we seek, while 'Virtue' (Arête) refers to the excellence of character or the functional traits required to achieve that good. In Western ethics, particularly Aristotelian, practicing virtue is the means by which a human realizes their highest good (Eudaimonia).
What is normative ethics?
Normative ethics is the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking.
It attempts to establish standards or "norms" for right and wrong conduct, such as Utilitarianism or Deontology.
What is meta-ethical theory?
Meta-ethics is the study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. Instead of asking "What is good?", it asks "What does the word 'good' mean?" and explores whether moral judgments are objective or subjective.
What is the nature of ethics? Distinguish between normative ethics and meta-ethics.
Nature of Ethics: Ethics is a normative science that deals with human conduct in society. It is not a natural science (like biology) but a field that evaluates voluntary actions against a standard of right and wrong.
Comparison Table:
| Feature | Normative Ethics | Meta-Ethics |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Goal | To define what is right/wrong action. | To define the nature of moral terms/claims. |
| Key Question | "Is lying always wrong?" | "What does 'wrong' mean?" |
| Approach | Prescriptive (giving rules). | Analytical/Epistemological. |
"Does the end justify the means?" Explain.
This statement represents the core of Teleological (Consequentialist) ethics. It suggests that the moral rightness of an action is determined solely by its outcome.
While Utilitarians might argue that a good end justifies a questionable mean if it maximizes utility, Deontologists (like Kant) argue that certain means are inherently wrong regardless of the outcome.
Mention two types of Hedonism.
What is Qualitative Utilitarianism?
Advocated by J.S. Mill, this theory suggests that pleasures differ in quality as well as quantity. Higher pleasures (intellectual/moral) are superior to lower pleasures (sensual/animalistic).
Mention two types of Utilitarianism.
Make a comparative estimate of utilitarianism of Bentham and that of Mill.
Both Bentham and Mill agree that "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" is the standard of morality, but they differ in its application.
| Aspect | Bentham (Quantitative) | Mill (Qualitative) |
|---|---|---|
| Pleasure | All pleasures are equal (Pushpin is as good as poetry). | Pleasures differ in quality (Higher vs Lower). |
| Measurement | Uses the 'Hedonic Calculus' (Intensity, Duration, etc.). | Depends on the verdict of "competent judges." |
| Philosophy | Gross/Sensualistic Hedonism. | Refined/Eudaimonistic Hedonism. |
Discuss critically the virtue ethics of Aristotle.
Aristotle's ethics focuses on Character rather than rules. Key points include:
Criticism: It is often seen as vague—it tells us to "be a good person" but doesn't always provide clear rules for difficult moral dilemmas.
What is deontological ethics?
Deontological ethics (from Greek deon meaning duty) is a theory that judges the morality of an action based on rules and duties, regardless of the consequences.
What do you mean by Kant's postulates of morality?
These are necessary conditions for the existence of morality according to Kant: Freedom of the will, Immortality of the soul, and the existence of God.
What is Goodwill advocated by Aristotle?
(Note: Usually 'Goodwill' is a Kantian concept, while Aristotle discusses 'Eunoia'). In Aristotle's view, goodwill is a component of friendship where one wishes well for another without necessarily having an active emotional bond or shared history yet.
Explain critically Kant's ethical theory of 'categorical imperative'.
"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."
The Categorical Imperative is an unconditional moral obligation. Its main formulations are:
Critical Analysis: It provides a strong foundation for human rights, but it is criticized for being too rigid (e.g., Kant's view that one must never lie, even to save a life).
Discuss W. D. Ross criticism of Kant's ethical theory.
Ross criticized Kant's "absolutism." He argued that duties can sometimes conflict. Ross proposed the idea of Prima Facie Duties (duties at first sight), such as fidelity, gratitude, and justice. When duties conflict, we must use our intuition to decide our "actual duty."
What do you mean by emotivism in ethics?
Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that moral claims do not state facts but express the speaker's emotions. Saying "Stealing is wrong" is equivalent to saying "Boo to stealing!"
Is Good indefinable according to G. E. Moore? Why?
Yes. Moore argued that 'Good' is a simple, non-natural property (like the color yellow). It cannot be broken down into simpler parts or defined by natural properties like 'pleasure'.
Who advocated naturalistic fallacy in ethics?
G. E. Moore advocated the concept of the naturalistic fallacy in his book Principia Ethica.
How does G. E. Moore discuss the nature of Good? Do you agree with him?
Moore uses the Open Question Argument. If "Good" meant "Pleasant," then the question "Is pleasure good?" would be a tautology (like "Is pleasure pleasant?"). Since the question remains open and meaningful, "Good" cannot be defined by natural terms.
Do you agree with the view that ethical sentences do not have any cognitive meaning? Discuss with reference to A. J. Ayer.
A. J. Ayer, a logical positivist, argued that for a sentence to have cognitive meaning, it must be either analytically true or empirically verifiable. Ethical sentences (e.g., "Murder is bad") are neither. Therefore, they only have emotive meaning—expressing feelings or commanding behavior.
Mention two fields of applied ethics.
What is the meaning of environmental pollution?
Environmental pollution refers to the introduction of harmful materials (pollutants) into the natural environment, causing adverse changes to the air, water, or land.
What is the meaning of bioethics?
Bioethics is the study of ethical issues arising from advances in biology and medicine, dealing with topics like cloning, euthanasia, and organ donation.
Discuss the nature and scope of applied ethics.
Applied ethics is the practical application of moral considerations to real-world actions. Its scope includes:
What is punishment? Discuss reformative theory of punishment.
Punishment is the imposition of an undesirable outcome on a person by an authority as a response to an offense.
Reformative Theory: This theory views crime as a "disease" and the criminal as a "patient." The goal is to rehabilitate and educate the offender so they can reintegrate into society as a law-abiding citizen. It focuses on the motive of the crime rather than just the act.
For 10-mark questions, use the Introduction - Core Theory - Comparison/Criticism - Conclusion structure to ensure maximum marks.