FYUG Even Semester Exam, 2024
Philosophy: Epistemology and Metaphysics (Indian)
Section-A
(Answer any ten questions. Each question carries 2 marks.)
1. Write the name of those orthodox schools which do not believe in the existence of God. [2 Marks]
The orthodox (Astika) schools that do not believe in a creator God are Samkhya (in its classical form) and Mimamsa
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2. What do you mean by the law of Karma in Indian philosophy? [2 Marks]
The Law of Karma is the moral law of causation which states that every action (physical or mental) produces a corresponding result, ensuring that an individual reaps what they sow across different births
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3. Why are the Carvākas called the materialists in Indian philosophy? [2 Marks]
They are called materialists because they recognize Matter (Bhuta) as the only ultimate reality and reject the existence of any non-material entities like the soul, God, or an after-life
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4. How do the Carvākas explain the nature of consciousness? [2 Marks]
The Carvākas argue that consciousness is an epiphenomenon of matter; it emerges from the combination of the four material elements (Earth, Water, Fire, Air), just as the red color emerges from the combination of betel leaf, lime, and nut
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5. What does the word 'Jaina' mean? Who is the founder of Jainism? [2 Marks]
- The word 'Jaina' is derived from 'Jina', which means 'Conqueror' (one who has conquered their passions)
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- Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) is considered the first Tirthankara and founder of Jainism
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6. Write the name of the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. [2 Marks]
- Dukkha: Life is suffering
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- Dukkha Samudaya: There is a cause of suffering
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- Dukkha Nirodha: Suffering can be stopped
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- Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Pratipada: There is a path to stop suffering
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7. What is the name of Buddha's theory of causation? How many links are there? [2 Marks]
- The theory is called Pratītyasamutpāda (Dependent Origination)
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- There are twelve links (Nidanas) in this chain of causation
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8. What are the four major schools of Buddhism? [2 Marks]
The four major philosophical schools are Vaibhashika, Sautrantika, Madhyamaka (Sunyavada), and Yogacara (Vijnanavada)
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9. What is Pratyaksa or perception according to Gautama? [2 Marks]
According to Gautama (Nyayasutra), perception is the definite knowledge that arises from the contact of a sense-organ with its object, which is non-erroneous and well-defined
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10. Who is the author of Nyayasūtra? How many Pramāņas are accepted by the Naiyāyikas? [2 Marks]
- The author is Maharishi Gautama
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- The Naiyāyikas accept four Pramāņas: Pratyaksa (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Comparison), and Sabda (Testimony)
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11. How many categories are admitted by the Vaiśeşikas? Is 'Abhāva' a category? [2 Marks]
- The Vaiśeşikas admit seven categories (Padarthas)
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- Yes, 'Abhāva' (Non-existence) is recognized as the seventh category
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12. Who is the founder of Advaita Vedanta? How many Pramāņas are recognised by it? [2 Marks]
- The primary exponent and founder is Sankaracharya
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- Advaita Vedānta recognises six Pramāņas (including Arthapatti and Anupalabdhi)
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Section-B
(Answer any five questions. Each question carries 10 marks.)
13. Explain briefly the distinctive features of Indian philosophy. [10 Marks]
Indian philosophy (Darshana) possesses several unique characteristics that distinguish it from Western thought:
- Practical Necessity: It is not merely an intellectual exercise but arises from a practical need to overcome suffering (Dukkha)
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- Spiritual Orientation: The ultimate goal is Moksha or liberation from the cycle of birth and death
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- Law of Karma: Most schools (except Carvaka) accept the moral law of cause and effect
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- Classification: Systems are divided into Orthodox (Astika), which accept Vedic authority, and Heterodox (Nastika), which reject it
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- Unity of Theory and Practice: Philosophy is seen as a way of life, requiring moral discipline and meditation alongside logical reasoning
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14. Explain the epistemology of the Carvāka system. [10 Marks]
The Carvaka epistemology is strictly Empiricism
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- Perception as the Only Pramana: They hold that Pratyaksa (Perception) is the only valid source of knowledge because it is the only one that provides certainty
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- Rejection of Inference (Anumana): They argue that inference relies on 'Vyapti' (universal relation), which cannot be established by perception. Therefore, inference is only a guess and not certain knowledge.
- Rejection of Testimony (Sabda): They reject verbal testimony as a Pramana, arguing that words are just sounds and the Vedas were written by "buffoons, knaves, and demons"
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- Metaphysical Consequences: Since only what is perceived is real, they reject God, Soul, and Heaven as they cannot be seen
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15. Explain briefly the Anekāntavāda (relative pluralism) of Jainism. [10 Marks]
Anekāntavāda is the metaphysical theory that reality has infinite aspects (Ananta-dharmakam vastu)
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- Multiplicity of Truth: No single perspective can capture the absolute truth of an object because an object has infinite qualities
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- Naya-vada: A 'Naya' is a partial truth from a particular point of view. Errors occur when we mistake a partial truth for the whole truth.
- Syadvada: This is the epistemological expression of Anekantavada, often called the "Theory of May-be." It suggests that every judgment should be preceded by the word 'Syat' (somehow/in a way) to show its relativity.
16. Define Anumana. Explain the classification of Anumāna according to the Naiyāyikas. [2+8=10 Marks]
Definition: Anumāna (Inference) is "knowledge that follows other knowledge." It is the process of arriving at a conclusion (Sadhya) regarding a subject (Paksha) based on a middle term (Hetu) and a universal relation (Vyapti).
Classification:
- Svarthanumana vs. Pararthanumana: Inference for oneself vs. inference for convincing others through the five-membered syllogism (Pancavayava Nyaya)
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- Purvavat: Inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived cause (e.g., seeing clouds and inferring future rain)
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- Sesavat: Inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect (e.g., seeing a flooded river and inferring past rain)
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- Samanyatodrsta: Inference based on commonality rather than a causal link (e.g., inferring the movement of the sun because it changes position)
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17. What is Prakrti? How does Samkhya prove the existence of Prakṛti? [2+8=10 Marks]
Definition: Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world, characterized as the unconscious, eternal, and all-pervasive principle composed of three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas
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Proofs for Existence (Kārikā 15):
- Bhedanam Parimanat: Individual objects are finite and limited; they must originate from an infinite, unlimited source
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- Samanvayat: Different objects possess common qualities (the three Gunas), implying a common source
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- Shaktitah Pravrttesca: Evolution is only possible if the cause has the potential energy (Shakti) to produce the effect
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- Karana-karya-vibhagat: The effect is clearly distinct from the cause, but implicitly contained within it
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- Avibhagat Vaishvarupyasya: The entire universe is a unified whole (Vaishvarupya) and must merge back into an undifferentiated state (Avibhaga)
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18. Discuss briefly, Śamkara's doctrine of Māyā. [10 Marks]
In Advaita Vedanta, Māyā is the power of Brahman that makes the one appear as many
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- Nature: It is described as Anirvacaniya (indescribable)—it is neither real (as it disappears with knowledge) nor unreal (as it is experienced in the world)
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- Two Functions:
- Avarana Shakti: It conceals the true nature of Brahman (like a cloud hiding the sun)
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- Vikshepa Shakti: It projects the illusory world of plurality upon the concealed Brahman
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- Locus: According to Sankara, the locus (Ashraya) of Maya is Brahman itself, though Brahman remains unaffected by it
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