FYUG Even Semester Exam, 2024
Political Science: Political Theory-Concepts and Debates

Section-A

(Answer any ten questions. Each question carries 2 marks.)

1. Point out two safeguards of liberty. [2 Marks]

• Independent Judiciary: A court system free from political pressure ensures that laws are interpreted fairly and individual freedoms are protected.
• Rule of Law: Ensuring that no individual or government body is above the law prevents arbitrary use of power.

2. Name one supporter each for negative liberty and positive liberty. [2 Marks]

• Negative Liberty: Isaiah Berlin (or J.S. Mill).
• Positive Liberty: T.H. Green (or Jean-Jacques Rousseau).

3. What is meant by Differential Treatment? [2 Marks]

Differential Treatment refers to the practice of treating individuals or groups differently based on their specific needs or historical disadvantages to achieve substantive equality, rather than just formal equality.

4. Mention two features of equality. [2 Marks]

• Absence of Privileges: No individual or class should enjoy special privileges that are denied to others in the same circumstances.
• Adequate Opportunities: All citizens should have equal access to resources and opportunities for self-development.

5. Define egalitarianism. [2 Marks]

Egalitarianism is a political and social philosophy that advocates for the fundamental equality of all people, suggesting that they should be treated as equals and have the same political, social, and economic rights and status.

6. Name two supporters of procedural justice. [2 Marks]

• F.A. Hayek.
• Robert Nozick.

7. Point out any two features of justice. [2 Marks]

• Fairness/Impartiality: Justice requires that like cases be treated alike without bias.
• External Action: Justice is concerned with the regulation of external behavior and social interactions between individuals.

8. What is the relation between justice and equality? [2 Marks]

Justice and equality are deeply intertwined; equality is often seen as a prerequisite for justice. A society is considered just only when it provides equal rights and fair distribution of resources to all its members.

9. What is meant by universality of rights? [2 Marks]

Universality of rights means that all human beings are entitled to the same fundamental rights, regardless of their nationality, race, religion, gender, or any other status, simply by virtue of being human.

10. Mention any two kinds of legal rights. [2 Marks]

• Civil Rights: Such as the right to life and personal liberty.
• Political Rights: Such as the right to vote or hold public office.

11. Name two advocates of moral rights. [2 Marks]

• Immanuel Kant.
• John Locke.

12. Define human rights. [2 Marks]

Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, from birth until death, based on shared values like dignity, fairness, equality, respect, and independence.

13. Mention two important covenants of human rights that came in force in 1976. [2 Marks]

• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).

14. Point out any two issues of multiculturalism. [2 Marks]

• Cultural Recognition: The challenge of recognizing minority cultural practices within a dominant state framework.
• Tension with Individual Rights: The conflict between collective group rights and the individual rights of members within that group.

Section-B

(Answer any five questions. Each question carries 10 marks.)

15. Distinguish between negative liberty and positive liberty. [10 Marks]

The distinction between negative and positive liberty was most famously articulated by Isaiah Berlin. It represents two different ways of thinking about human freedom.

Feature	Negative Liberty	Positive Liberty
Definition	Absence of obstacles, barriers, or constraints.	The possibility of acting—or the fact of acting—in such a way as to take control of one's life.
Key Question	"How many doors are open to me?"	"Who is the master?"
Role of State	Minimum state interference (Laissez-faire).	State provides enabling conditions (Welfare state).
Focus	Individual autonomy from external interference.	Capacity for self-realization and self-mastery.

In summary, negative liberty is "freedom from" external coercion, while positive liberty is the "freedom to" achieve one's potential.

16. What is liberty? Critically explain J.S. Mill's views on liberty. [2+8=10 Marks]

Definition: Liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views.

J.S. Mill’s Views on Liberty:

• The Harm Principle: Mill argued that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.
• Self-regarding vs. Other-regarding Actions: Mill distinguished between actions that only affect the individual (self-regarding) and those that affect others (other-regarding). He believed the state should not interfere in self-regarding actions.
• Freedom of Speech and Expression: Mill was a staunch advocate for absolute freedom of speech, even if the opinion is false, as it helps in the discovery of truth through debate.

Critical Analysis: Critics argue that it is difficult to distinguish between self-regarding and other-regarding actions in a modern, interconnected society. Furthermore, the "Harm Principle" is often seen as too narrow to address psychological or social harm.

17. Explain the right to equality with reference to Indian concept and differential treatment. [10 Marks]

The Indian concept of equality is not merely formal (treating everyone the same) but substantive (ensuring equal results). This is reflected in Articles 14-18 of the Indian Constitution.

• Equality Before Law (Art. 14): No person is above the law and all are subject to the same jurisdiction.
• Differential Treatment (Protective Discrimination): The Indian state recognizes that historical injustices (like the caste system) require unequal treatment to bring everyone to a level playing field. This is why reservations in education and jobs are considered constitutional.
• Abolition of Untouchability (Art. 17): This is a radical step toward social equality by removing systemic barriers.

Thus, in India, equality means "equals should be treated equally," but "unequals must be treated differentially" to achieve justice.

18. What do you mean by equality? Briefly discuss the importance of political equality in democracy. [3+7=10 Marks]

Definition: Equality is the condition where all individuals in a society have the same status, rights, and opportunities.

Importance of Political Equality in Democracy:

• One Person, One Vote: This principle ensures that every citizen's voice carries equal weight in the formation of government.
• Equal Access to Political Office: Every citizen, regardless of socio-economic background, should have the legal right to contest elections.
• Legitimacy: Democracy derives its legitimacy from the consent of the governed. If political equality is missing, the government is seen as serving only the elite.
• Protection of Interests: Political equality allows marginalized groups to use their voting power to advocate for policies that protect their specific interests.

19. Critically discuss John Rawls' theory of justice. [10 Marks]

John Rawls, in his work A Theory of Justice, proposes "Justice as Fairness."

• The Original Position and Veil of Ignorance: Rawls asks us to imagine designing a society without knowing our own place in it (class, gender, talents). This ensures impartiality.
• The Two Principles:
  1. Liberty Principle: Each person has an equal right to basic liberties.
  2. Difference Principle: Social and economic inequalities are permissible only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society.

Critical Analysis: Communitarians argue that Rawls' "unencumbered self" is unrealistic as individuals are defined by their social ties. Libertarians like Nozick argue that the Difference Principle violates individual property rights through taxation.

20. What is global justice? How does it differ from international justice? Briefly discuss its relevance in the era of globalization. [2+3+5=10 Marks]

Global Justice: Focuses on the rights and duties of individuals worldwide, regardless of their nationality.

Difference from International Justice: International justice is "inter-state"—it focuses on fairness in dealings between nations. Global justice is "transnational"—it argues that our moral obligations extend directly to all humans, bypasssing state borders.

Relevance in Globalization:

• Economic Inequality: Addresses the vast wealth gap between the Global North and South.
• Climate Change: Environmental issues are global; justice requires that polluters pay and vulnerable nations are protected.
• Migration: Globalization has increased human movement; global justice provides a framework for the rights of refugees and migrants.

21. What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948? Explain the three generations of Human Rights. [4+6=10 Marks]

UDHR 1948: A milestone document adopted by the UN General Assembly that outlines 30 fundamental rights that should be universally protected.

Three Generations of Human Rights:

• First Generation (Civil & Political): Focuses on liberty and participation (e.g., right to vote, freedom of speech). "Blue" rights.
• Second Generation (Economic, Social & Cultural): Focuses on equality and social security (e.g., right to work, education, healthcare). "Red" rights.
• Third Generation (Solidarity Rights): Focuses on collective rights (e.g., right to a clean environment, peace, self-determination). "Green" rights.

22. What are legal rights? Discuss the different categories of legal rights with proper examples. [2+8=10 Marks]

Legal Rights: These are claims recognized and enforced by the state. Unlike moral rights, their violation is punishable by law.

Categories:

• Civil Rights: Essential for a dignified life. Example: Right to life, right to contract.
• Political Rights: Enable participation in governance. Example: Right to vote, right to petition.
• Economic Rights: Ensure financial security. Example: Right to work, right to fair wages.

23. What is universality of human rights? Give arguments for and against the idea of universality of human rights. [2+4+4=10 Marks]

Universality: The idea that human rights apply to everyone, everywhere, at all times.

Arguments For:

• Common Humanity: All humans share the same basic needs and dignity.
• Protection from Tyranny: Universal standards prevent dictators from claiming "culture" as an excuse for oppression.

Arguments Against (Cultural Relativism):

• Western Bias: Critics argue that the UDHR is based on individualistic Western values, ignoring Eastern/African communal values.
• Cultural Imperialism: Imposing universal rights can be seen as a way for powerful nations to dominate the internal cultures of others.

24. "Human rights and multiculturalism contradict to one another." Give reasons for and against the statement. [5+5=10 Marks]

Arguments for Contradiction:

• Individual vs. Group: Human rights focus on the individual, whereas multiculturalism often demands rights for the "group," which might oppress individuals within that group (e.g., women's rights in patriarchal cultures).
• Illiberal Practices: Some cultural practices protected under multiculturalism may violate universal human rights (e.g., child marriage).

Arguments Against Contradiction:

• Right to Culture: The right to practice one's own culture is itself a recognized human right.
• Inclusive Justice: Multiculturalism enhances human rights by ensuring that minority groups are not forced to assimilate, protecting their dignity.