FYUG Even Semester Exam, 2025
Philosophy: PHIDSC-251
(History of Modern Western Philosophy)

Semester: 4th Semester | Full Marks: 70 | Pass Marks: 28

Time Duration: 3 Hours

UNIT-I

Question 1 (a) [2 Marks]

What is substance according to Descartes?

Substance is an existent thing which requires nothing but itself in order to exist.

In a strict sense, this definition applies only to God, who is the absolute substance. However, Descartes also recognizes two "created substances"—Mind (extensionless thinking) and Body (unthinking extension)—which require only God's concurrence to exist.

Question 1 (b) [2 Marks]

What is innate idea? Give example.

Innate ideas are ideas that are not derived from external sensory experience or manufactured by the mind's imagination. Instead, they are "born" within the mind, placed there by God or inherent to the faculty of reason.

Example: The idea of God (the idea of a perfect, infinite being) or the basic principles of logic (e.g., A=A).

Question 1 (c) [2 Marks]

What according to Descartes can never be doubted? Give an example of a factitious idea.

According to Descartes, the act of thinking itself can never be doubted. Even if a "malicious demon" deceives him, the fact that he is being deceived proves he exists as a thinking thing.

Factitious ideas are ideas invented or constructed by the mind by combining other ideas.

Example: A Chimaera or a Siren.

Question 2 (a) [10 Marks]

Discuss critically Descartes' 'Cogito ergo sum'.

Definition: Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am) is the fundamental philosophical proposition used by Descartes to establish a certain foundation for knowledge after his process of methodical doubt.

Explanation: Descartes aims to find one truth that is "clear and distinct." He doubts everything: the senses (which deceive), the physical world (which might be a dream), and even mathematical truths (which a malicious demon might distort). However, he finds that he cannot doubt his own existence, because doubting is a form of thinking, and thinking requires a thinker.

Key Points:

Primacy of Mind: It establishes that the "I" is a res cogitans (a thinking thing).
Innate Certainty: It is not a logical syllogism (all thinking things exist; I think; therefore I exist) but an immediate intuition.

Critical Points:

The "I" Problem: Critics like David Hume argue that while "thinking" is observed, there is no proof of a permanent "I" or soul behind it.
Logical Status: Some argue the "therefore" implies an inference, which requires prior logic that Descartes had already supposed to doubt.

"I think, therefore I am."

Question 2 (b) (OR) [10 Marks]

Explain briefly philosophical method of Descartes.

Descartes' method is often called Methodological Doubt or the Cartesian Method, aimed at reaching absolute certainty by stripping away all uncertain beliefs.

The Four Rules (from Discourse on Method):

Rule of Evidence: Never accept anything as true unless it is presented so clearly and distinctly that there is no reason to doubt it.
Rule of Analysis: Divide complex problems into as many smaller parts as possible to solve them better.
Rule of Synthesis: Order thoughts from the simplest and easiest to know, gradually ascending to the more complex.
Rule of Enumeration: Make reviews so complete and general that nothing is omitted.

Goal: To build a system of knowledge as rigorous as mathematics, starting from an indubitable foundation.

UNIT-II

Question 3 (a) [2 Marks]

What is the definition of attributes according to Spinoza?

According to Spinoza, an Attribute is that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of substance. While Substance (God) has infinite attributes, the human mind can only perceive two: Thought and Extension.

Question 3 (b) [2 Marks]

What is the difference between monads and compound objects? Are monads spiritual?

Difference: Monads are simple, indivisible, "windowless" substances that have no parts. Compound objects are merely aggregates or collections of these simple monads.

Nature: Yes, monads are spiritual in nature. They are "force centers" or "souls" possessing different levels of perception and appetition.

Question 3 (c) [2 Marks]

What is Pantheism?

Pantheism is the philosophical view that God and the Universe are identical.

In Spinoza’s philosophy, this is expressed as Deus sive Natura (God or Nature), meaning there is only one substance, and everything that exists is a mode or expression of God.

Question 4 (a) [10 Marks]

Describe briefly Spinoza's Theory of Substance.

Spinoza defines substance as: "That which is in itself and is conceived through itself."

Characteristics:

Unity and Infinity: There can be only one substance (Monism). This substance is God or Nature.
Self-Causation: Substance is Causa Sui (its own cause); it does not depend on anything else for its existence.
Attributes and Modes: Substance possesses infinite attributes (like Thought and Extension). Individual things (humans, trees) are not substances but modes (modifications) of the one substance.

Conclusion: Spinoza’s theory rejects Descartes’ dualism by arguing that Mind and Body are simply two ways of looking at the same divine substance.

Question 4 (b) (OR) [10 Marks]

Write a brief essay on 'Leibnitz' Monadology'.

Leibniz's Monadology is a pluralistic theory of substance. He argues that the world is composed of infinite, simple, soul-like entities called Monads.

Key Principles:

Simplicity: Monads have no parts, so they are indivisible and indestructible.
Windowless: "Monads have no windows." They cannot be influenced by anything external; all their changes come from an internal principle.
Pre-established Harmony: Since monads don't interact, God has synchronized them from the beginning (like two perfectly timed clocks) so they appear to interact.

Hierarchy: Monads range from "bare monads" (matter) to "soul monads" (animals), "spirit monads" (humans), and the "Supreme Monad" (God).

UNIT-III

Question 5 (a) [2 Marks]

Distinguish between primary qualities and secondary qualities.

Feature	Primary Qualities	Secondary Qualities
Nature	Inseparable from the object.	Powers in the object to produce sensations in us.
Examples	Extension, figure, motion, number.	Color, sound, taste, smell.

Locke argued primary qualities are objective, while secondary qualities depend on the perceiver.

Question 5 (b) [2 Marks]

Give any two reasons that Locke refutes Descartes' doctrine of innate ideas.

Lack of Universal Consent: Children and "idiots" do not possess ideas like "It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be."

Tabula Rasa: The mind at birth is a "blank slate." All ideas come from experience (Sensation and Reflection).

Question 5 (c) [2 Marks]

What is Scepticism?

Scepticism is the philosophical position that questions the possibility of attaining certain or absolute knowledge. Hume’s scepticism specifically doubts the rational justification for things like causality and the existence of the external world.

Question 6 (a) [10 Marks]

Explain subjective idealism of Berkeley.

Berkeley's subjective idealism is summarized by the dictum: Esse est Percipi (To be is to be perceived).

Core Arguments:

Rejection of Matter: Berkeley argues that "matter" as an unthinking substance does not exist. We only perceive "ideas" (qualities).
Dependence on Mind: Since we only know sensations (colors, shapes), and sensations exist only in the mind, the "objects" are just collections of ideas in a mind.

Role of God: To explain why things exist when no human is looking at them, Berkeley argues that God perceives everything at all times, maintaining the world’s existence.

Question 6 (b) (OR) [10 Marks]

Is Hume a sceptic? Discuss briefly.

Yes, David Hume is considered a mitigated sceptic because he challenged the foundations of human reason.

Reasons for his Scepticism:

Attack on Causality: Hume argued we never perceive "cause and effect," only "constant conjunction." The belief that the sun will rise tomorrow is a habit of mind (custom), not a logical certainty.
Induction Problem: We cannot rationally justify that the future will resemble the past.
The Self: He could find no "self," only a "bundle of perceptions."

Conclusion: While Hume was a sceptic in theory, he admitted that in practice, we must live and act as if these things were true.

UNIT-IV

Question 7 (a) [2 Marks]

Who is the author of the book, Critique of Pure Reason?

The author is Immanuel Kant.

Question 7 (b) [2 Marks]

"All bachelors are unmarried." Is the proposition analytic?

Yes, it is Analytic. In an analytic proposition, the predicate ("unmarried") is already contained within the concept of the subject ("bachelor"). Denying it would lead to a contradiction.

Question 7 (c) [2 Marks]

How many categories of understanding are there as advocated by Kant? Give example of any two.

There are 12 categories of understanding.

Examples: Causality and Unity (or Substance, Plurality, etc.).

Question 7 (d) [2 Marks]

What is Noumena as introduced by Kant as a part of Transcendental idealism?

Noumena (or "Thing-in-itself") refers to reality as it exists independently of human sense perception. Kant argues that while we can know Phenomena (things as they appear to us), we can never know Noumena.

Question 8 (a) [10 Marks]

"Understanding makes nature." Discuss briefly after Kant.

This statement reflects Kant's Copernican Revolution in philosophy. Instead of the mind conforming to objects, objects must conform to the mind.

Key Concept:

Nature is not just a collection of raw data; it is the sum of appearances regulated by laws.
The human mind provides the "forms" of sensibility (Space and Time) and the "categories" of understanding (like Causality).
Without the mind’s categories to organize sensory input, "nature" would be a chaotic "rhapsody of perceptions."

Conclusion: "Understanding" provides the laws that make the world an orderly "Nature" for us.

Question 8 (b) (OR) [10 Marks]

Is synthetic a priori judgement possible? Give justification after Kant.

Yes, Kant argues that Synthetic A Priori judgements are not only possible but are the foundation of Science and Mathematics.

Definitions:

Synthetic: Adds new information to the subject.
A Priori: Known independent of specific experience (universal and necessary).

Justification:

Mathematics: "7 + 5 = 12" is synthetic because the concept of 12 is not in 7 or 5 alone; it requires intuition. It is a priori because it is always true.
Physics: The law that "every change has a cause" is synthetic a priori. Experience provides the change, but the mind provides the necessary rule of causality.

UNIT-V

Question 9 (a) [2 Marks]

What are thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis? Who advocated it?

These are the three stages of the Dialectical Process. A concept (Thesis) faces its opposite (Anti-thesis), and the tension is resolved in a higher truth (Synthesis). It was advocated by G.W.F. Hegel.

Question 9 (b) [2 Marks]

Give any two criticisms of Hegel's objective idealism.

Critics argue it ignores the reality of material conditions (e.g., Marx's critique).

It is accused of being overly abstract and justifying the status quo as "rational."

Question 9 (c) [2 Marks]

"Absolute idea of Hegel is static." Briefly explain the statement.

This refers to the criticism that once the Dialectic reaches the Absolute Idea, all contradictions are resolved and movement stops. It implies a "Final Goal" where the process of history ends.

Question 10 (a) [10 Marks]

"Dialectical method is the way of evolution or manifestation of the absolute idea." Explain briefly the dialectical method of Hegel.

Hegel’s dialectic is the logic of becoming. It explains how the "Absolute Spirit" unfolds itself in history.

The Process:

Triadic Movement: Everything contains its own contradiction. The movement from Thesis to Anti-thesis to Synthesis drives progress.
Aufhebung (Sublation): In the Synthesis, the previous stages are both cancelled and preserved at a higher level.

Manifestation: History is the story of the Spirit (Geist) becoming conscious of itself through this process, moving from subjective mind to objective mind (state/laws) to Absolute Mind (Art/Religion/Philosophy).

Question 10 (b) (OR) [10 Marks]

Briefly discuss the doctrine of dialectical materialism as advocated by Marx.

Marx famously "stood Hegel on his head." While Hegel focused on ideas, Marx focused on **matter** and economic conditions.