Define Pramā. Can 'memory' be classified as Pramā?
Pramā is defined as "Yathārtha Anubhava," which means valid presentative knowledge or knowledge that represents an object as it truly is.
Memory: No, memory (Smriti) cannot be classified as Pramā in the Nyāya school.
This is because memory is representative knowledge based on past impressions, whereas Pramā must be presentative (Anubhava).Define Apramā. How many kinds of Apramā are accepted by the Naiyāyikas?
Definition: Apramā is invalid knowledge (Ayathārtha Anubhava), where an object is perceived as something it is not.
Kinds: The Naiyāyikas accept three kinds of Apramā:
How many Pramāņas are accepted by the Nyāya school? Name them.
The Nyāya school accepts four independent Pramāṇas (sources of valid knowledge):
What is Saṁśaya (doubt)? Discuss the five kinds of Samsaya as accepted by Nyaya philosophy.
Definition: Saṁśaya is the state of mind where there is an oscillation between different conflicting attributes regarding the same object (e.g., "Is that a post or a man?").
Five Kinds of Samsaya:
Write short notes on Viparyaya (error) and Tarka (hypothetical reasoning).
Viparyaya (Error): This is positive misapprehension or false knowledge.
It occurs when we perceive an object and attribute to it characteristics it does not possess, such as seeing silver in a shell (Raupya-bhrama). Unlike doubt, error is a definite cognition, but it is incorrect.Tarka (Hypothetical Reasoning): Tarka is an indirect method of validation.
It is used to support a Pramāṇa by showing that the opposite of the conclusion would lead to an absurdity. For example, "If there were no fire, there would be no smoke." It is not a Pramāṇa itself but a "help" to Pramāṇa.State Annambhatta's definition of Pratyaksa (perception).
Pratyakṣa is the knowledge produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object (Indriyārtha sannikarṣa janyam jñānam).
What, according to Nyaya school, is the Karana (specific cause) of Pratyaksa? How many types of sense-object contact are accepted?
Karana: The specific cause of perception is the sense-organ (Indriya).
Contacts: There are six types of ordinary sense-object contact (Laukika Sannikarṣa).
What are the definitions of Savikalpaka and Nirvikalpaka Pratyaksa? Distinguish between them.
Nirvikalpaka (Indeterminate): The primary, non-judgmental stage where we perceive the existence of an object without its attributes or relations.
Annambhatta defines it as "knowledge devoid of name and class."Savikalpaka (Determinate): The second stage where the object is perceived with its name, genus, and attributes (e.g., "This is a man," "This is a jar").
Distinctions:
What are the Avayavas of Anumana?
The five members (Avayavas) of a Nyāya syllogism are:
How has Annambhatta defined Vyapti? Discuss its role in Anumiti.
[span_45](start_span)Definition: Vyāpti is defined as "Hetu-vyanāpaka-sādhya-samānādhikaraṇyam," which translates to the relation of invariable concomitance between the Hetu (middle term) and the Sādhya (major term).
[span_45](end_span)Role in Anumiti:
What are the two kinds of Sabda as accepted by the Nyaya school?
Critically explain Upamāna as a distinct source of valid knowledge.
Definition: Upamāna is knowledge of the relation between a name and an object (Saṁjñā-saṁjñī sambandha) based on similarity.
The Process:
Critical Examination: Other schools like Sāṁkhya and Vaiśeṣika reduce Upamāna to perception or inference.
However, Nyāya maintains its distinctness because the knowledge generated is specifically about the naming relationship, which perception or inference alone cannot yield.Explain with examples the different types of Hetvābhāsa (fallacies of inference).
[span_60](start_span)The Nyāya school identifies five types of fallacious reasons (Hetvābhāsa):
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