Political Science: World Constitutions
FYUG Even Semester Exam 2025

Question 1(a): Distinction between the 'King' and the 'Crown'

The distinction lies in the transition from an individual to an institution:

• The King: Refers to the physical person who occupies the throne. The King is mortal and can die.
• The Crown: Refers to the institution of the monarchy. It represents the powers of the state and is immortal.

"The King is dead, long live the King" signifies that while the person (King) dies, the institution (Crown) continues.

Question 1(b): 'Rule of Law' in the context of the UK Constitution

Popularized by A.V. Dicey, the Rule of Law in the UK includes three key pillars:

1. Supremacy of Law: No one can be punished except for a distinct breach of law.
2. Equality before the Law: Every citizen, regardless of rank, is subject to the ordinary law of the land.
3. Constitution as a result of Law: Rights are derived from judicial decisions rather than a written document.

Question 1(c): 'Constitutional Conventions' in Britain (UK)

Conventions are unwritten rules of political conduct that are considered binding but are not enforceable by courts. They "flesh out" the legal skeleton of the constitution.

Example: The King must give assent to bills passed by Parliament; the Prime Minister must be a member of the House of Commons.

Question 2(a): Powers, functions, and position of the Prime Minister of Britain (UK)

Definition: The Prime Minister (PM) is the head of the British Government and the "primus inter pares" (first among equals).

• Formation of Cabinet: The PM selects ministers and allocates portfolios.
• Leadership of Parliament: As leader of the majority party, the PM manages government business in the House of Commons.
• Link between Crown and Cabinet: The PM keeps the Monarch informed about cabinet decisions.
• International Representative: Represents the UK at global summits (G7, UN).
• Power of Appointment: Recommends appointments for high offices like bishops and judges.

The PM's position is one of "Dictatorship within Democracy" if they have a strong majority. They are the pivot around which the entire administration revolves.

While historically "first among equals," modern PMs often exercise "Prime Ministerial Government," exerting near-presidential authority over the executive.

Question 2(b): Powers, functions, and position of the British House of Commons

1. Powers and Functions:

• Legislative: Law-making is the primary function. Most bills originate here.
• Financial: Only the Commons can introduce and pass money bills. The House of Lords cannot reject them.
• Control over Executive: The Cabinet is responsible to the Commons. The House can dismiss the government via a Vote of No Confidence.
• Ventilation of Grievances: Members raise public concerns during "Question Hour."

Is it more powerful? Yes. Since the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the House of Lords has been reduced to a revising chamber with only the power to delay legislation. The Commons represents the sovereign will of the people.

Question 3(a): 'Checks and Balances' in the US Constitution

This principle ensures that no single branch of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial) becomes too powerful. Each branch has the ability to limit or "check" the others.

Example: The President can veto laws; Congress can override a veto; the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional.

Question 3(b): Influence of Montesquieu's 'Separation of Powers' on the US Constitution

The Founding Fathers (Madison, Jefferson) were deeply influenced by Montesquieu's theory to prevent tyranny. Consequently, they strictly divided powers: Article I (Legislature), Article II (Executive), and Article III (Judiciary).

Question 3(c): Origin of the concept in the USA

The concept originated during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. It was born out of a desire to create a government strong enough to function but limited enough to protect individual liberty after the failure of the Articles of Confederation.

Question 4(a): Election and Impeachment of the US President

• Primary/Caucuses: Parties select their nominees.
• Electoral College: Citizens vote for "electors." There are 538 electors in total.
• Winning: A candidate needs a majority of 270 electoral votes.

• Initiation: The House of Representatives brings charges (impeachment) for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes."
• Trial: The Senate conducts the trial, presided over by the Chief Justice.
• Removal: Requires a 2/3rd majority vote in the Senate.

Question 4(b): American Senate as the "Most Powerful Second Chamber"

Unlike the British House of Lords, the US Senate is extremely powerful for several reasons:

• Equal Legislative Power: No bill can become law without Senate approval.
• Executive Powers: The Senate must confirm all major presidential appointments and ratify international treaties (2/3rd vote).
• Judicial Power: It sits as a court of trial for impeachments.
• Direct Election: Since the 17th Amendment, Senators are directly elected, giving them popular mandate.

"The Senate is the graveyard of presidential ambitions."

Question 5(a): Why the Swiss Federal Executive is called a 'Plural Executive'?

Because executive power is not held by one person (like a President) but by a **Federal Council** of seven members. All members have equal status, and the chairmanship rotates annually.

Question 5(b): Two Houses of the Swiss Federal Parliament

1. National Council: Represents the Swiss people.
2. Council of States: Represents the Swiss Cantons (states).

Question 5(c): Is the Swiss Federal Supreme Court an elected judiciary?

Yes. The judges of the Federal Supreme Court are elected by the **Federal Assembly** (the two houses of parliament meeting together) for a term of six years, though they are usually re-elected until retirement.

Question 6(a): Salient features of the Constitution of Switzerland

• Written and Rigid: Requires a double majority (people and cantons) for amendments.
• Plural Executive: Seven-member council as mentioned earlier.
• Direct Democracy: Frequent use of Referendums and Initiatives.
• Permanent Neutrality: Switzerland avoids military alliances.
• Dynamic Federalism: Distribution of powers between the Confederation and 26 Cantons.

Question 6(b): Direct Democratic Devices in Switzerland and Causes of Success

• Referendum: Citizens vote on laws passed by parliament. Mandatory for constitutional changes.
• Initiative: Citizens can propose new laws or amendments if they gather enough signatures (usually 100,000).

• High Literacy: The population is politically educated.
• Small Size: Easier to manage direct voting in a small geographic area.
• Tradition: A long history of communal decision-making.
• Stable Economy: Reduces the chance of radical or emotional voting.

Question 7(a): What is 'Democratic Centralism' in China?

It is the core organizational principle of the Chinese state where "Democracy" means members discuss issues freely, but "Centralism" means once a decision is made, the lower bodies must strictly follow the higher bodies.

Question 7(b): Ideological basis of the Chinese Constitution

The constitution is based on **Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory**, and the "Three Represents." It emphasizes the leadership of the Communist Party and the socialist road.

Question 7(c): 'People's Democratic Dictatorship' in China

It means the state is a dictatorship of the working class led by the Communist Party. It is "democratic" for the people (proletariat) but "dictatorial" against enemies of the state/reactionaries.

Question 8(a): Composition, Powers, and Functions of the National People's Congress (NPC)

The NPC is the highest organ of state power in China. It consists of nearly 3,000 deputies elected by provincial-level congresses and the armed forces for a 5-year term.

• Legislative: Amends the Constitution and enacts basic laws.
• Appointive: Elects the President and Vice-President of China.
• Supervisory: Oversees the work of the State Council and the Supreme People's Court.
• Decision-making: Decides on issues of war and peace and national economic plans.

Question 8(b): Organization and Role of the Communist Party of China (CPC)

Organized on the principle of Democratic Centralism. Hierarchy: National Party Congress → Central Committee → Politburo → Standing Committee (the real power center).

• Monopoly on Power: The party controls all state organs (military, executive, judiciary).
• Policy Formulation: The party decides national policy; the government merely implements it.
• Cadre System: The party manages personnel appointments across all levels of government.

Question 9(a): British Parliamentary vs. American Presidential System

Question 9(b): American Supreme Court vs. Swiss Federal Supreme Court

• Judicial Review: The US Supreme Court can declare federal laws unconstitutional; the Swiss Court cannot declare federal laws unconstitutional (only cantonal laws).
• Election: US judges are appointed for life by the President; Swiss judges are elected for 6-year terms by Parliament.

Question 9(c): British Cabinet vs. American Cabinet

• Membership: British Cabinet members must be MPs; American Cabinet members cannot be members of Congress.
• Authority: The British Cabinet is a decision-making body (collective responsibility); the American Cabinet is merely an advisory body to the President.

Question 10(a): British PM vs. American President

Compare (Similarities): Both are heads of government and lead the executive branch.

• Source of Power: PM depends on majority in Parliament; President has a fixed 4-year term independent of Congress.
• Accountability: PM must answer questions in the House weekly; the President does not appear in Congress for questioning.
• Tenure: PM can be removed anytime via No Confidence; President only via Impeachment.

Question 10(b): British vs. American Political Parties